GEORGIUS AGRICOLA
TRANSLATED FROM THE FIRST LATIN EDITION OF 1556
with
Biographical Introduction, Annotations and Appendices upon
the Development of Mining Methods, Metallurgical
Processes, Geology, Mineralogy & Mining Law
from the earliest times to the 16th Century
BY
A. B.
Stanford University, Member American Institute of Mining Engineers,
Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, Société des Ingéniéurs
Civils de France, American Institute of Civil Engineers,
Fellow Royal Geographical Society, etc., etc.
AND
A. B.
Stanford University, Member American Association for the
Advancement of Science, The National Geographical Society,
Royal Scottish Geographical Society, etc., etc.
1950
NEW YORK
JOHN CASPAR BRANNER Ph.D.,
This New 1950 Edition
of DE RE METALLICA is a complete
and unchanged reprint of the transla
tion published by The Mining Magazine,
London, in 1912. It has been made avail
able through the kind permission of Honor
able Herbert C. Hoover and Mr.
Edgar
Rickard, Author and Publisher, respec
tively, of the original volume.
FÜR WISSENSCHAFTSGESCHICHTE
Bibliothek
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
There are three objectives in translation of works
of this character: to give a faithful, literal trans
lation of the author's statements; to give these
in a manner which will interest the reader; and to
preserve, so far as is possible, the style of the
original text. The task has been doubly difficult
in this work because, in using Latin, the author
availed himself of a medium which had ceased to
expand a thousand years before his subject had in
many particulars come into being; in consequence he was in difficulties
with a large number of ideas for which there were no corresponding
words in the vocabulary at his command, and instead of adopting into the
text his native German terms, he coined several hundred Latin expressions
to answer his needs. It is upon this rock that most former attempts at
translation have been wrecked. Except for a very small number, we
believe we have been able to discover the intended meaning of such
expressions from a study of the context, assisted by a very incomplete
glossary prepared by the author himself, and by an exhaustive investigation
into the literature of these subjects during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. That discovery in this particular has been only gradual and
obtained after much labour, may be indicated by the fact that the entire
text has been re-typewritten three times since the original, and some
parts more often; and further, that the printer's proof has been thrice revised. We have found some English equivalent, more or less satisfactory, for
practically all such terms, except those of weights, the varieties of veins,
and a few minerals. In the matter of weights we have introduced the
original Latin, because it is impossible to give true equivalents and avoid the
fractions of reduction; and further, as explained in the Appendix on Weights it
is impossible to say in many cases what scale the Author had in mind. The
English nomenclature to be adopted has given great difficulty, for various
reasons; among them, that many methods and processes described have
never been practised in English-speaking mining communities, and so had no
representatives in our vocabulary, and we considered the introduction of
German terms undesirable; other methods and processes have become
obsolete and their descriptive terms with them, yet we wished to avoid
the introduction of obsolete or unusual English; but of the greatest
importance of all has been the necessity to avoid rigorously such modern
technical terms as would imply a greater scientific understanding than the
period possessed.
Agricola's Latin, while mostly free from mediæval corruption, is some
what tainted with German construction. Moreover some portions have not
that the writing of the work extended over a period of twenty years, suffic
iently explains the considerable variation in style. The technical descriptions
in the later books often take the form of House-that-Jack-built sentences
which have had to be at least partially broken up and the subject
occasionally re-introduced. Ambiguities were also sometimes found which it
was necessary to carry on into the translation. Despite these criticisms we
must, however, emphasize that Agricola was infinitely clearer in his style
than his contemporaries upon such subjects, or for that matter than his
successors in almost any language for a couple of centuries. All of the
illustrations and display letters of the original have been reproduced and
the type as closely approximates to the original as the printers have been
able to find in a modern font.
There are no footnotes in the original text, and Mr.
Hoover is responsible
for them all. He has attempted in them to give not only such comment
as would tend to clarify the text, but also such information as we have
been able to discover with regard to the previous history of the subjects
mentioned. We have confined the historical notes to the time prior to
Agricola, because to have carried them down to date in the briefest manner
would have demanded very much more space than could be allowed. In the
examination of such technical and historical material one is appalled at the
flood of mis-information with regard to ancient arts and sciences which has
been let loose upon the world by the hands of non-technical translators and
commentators. At an early stage we considered that we must justify any
divergence of view from such authorities, but to limit the already alarming
volume of this work, we later felt compelled to eliminate most of such dis
cussion. When the half-dozen most important of the ancient works bearing
upon science have been translated by those of some scientific experience,
such questions will, no doubt, be properly settled.
We need make no apologies for During 180 years
it was not superseded as the text-book and guide to miners and metallurgists,
for until Schlüter's great work on metallurgy in 1738 it had no equal. That
it passed through some ten editions in three languages at a period when the
printing of such a volume was no ordinary undertaking, is in itself sufficient
evidence of the importance in which it was held, and is a record that no other
volume upon the same subjects has equalled since. A large proportion of the
technical data given by Agricola was either entirely new, or had not been
given previously with sufficient detail and explanation to have enabled a
worker in these arts himself to perform the operations without further guid
ance. Practically the whole of it must have been given from personal ex
perience and observation, for the scant library at his service can be appreci
ated from his own Preface. Considering the part which the metallic arts
have played in human history, the paucity of their literature down to
Agricola's time is amazing. No doubt the arts were jealously guarded by
their practitioners as a sort of stock-in-trade, and it is also probable that
those who had knowledge were not usually of a literary turn of mind; and,
interested in the description of industrial pursuits. Moreover, in those
thousands of years prior to printing, the tedious and expensive transcription of
manuscripts by hand was mostly applied to matters of more general interest,
and therefore many writings may have been lost in consequence. In fact,
such was the fate of the works of Theophrastus and Strato on these subjects.
We have prepared a short sketch of Agricola's life and times, not only
to give some indication of his learning and character, but also of his
considerable position in the community in which he lived. As no appreciation
of Agricola's stature among the founders of science can be gained without
consideration of the advance which his works display over those of his
predecessors, we therefore devote some attention to the state of knowledge
of these subjects at the time by giving in the Appendix a short review of the
literature then extant and a summary of Agricola's other writings. To serve the
bibliophile we present such data as we have been able to collect it with regard
to the various editions of his works. The full titles of the works quoted in
the footnotes under simply authors' names will be found in this Appendix.
We feel that it is scarcely doing Agricola justice to publish
MetallícaWhile it is of the most general interest of all of his works,
yet, from the point of view of pure science,
Ortu et CausísIt is
unfortunate that Agricola's own countrymen have not given to the world
competent translations into German, as his work has too often been judged
by the German translations, the infidelity of which appears in nearly every
paragraph.
We do not present
The methods and processes have long since been superseded; yet surely such
a milestone on the road of development of one of the two most basic of human
industrial activities is more worthy of preservation than the thousands of
volumes devoted to records of human destruction. To those interested in
the history of their own profession we need make no apologies, except
for the long delay in publication. For this we put forward the necessity of
active endeavour in many directions; as this book could be but a labour of
love, it has had to find the moments for its execution in night hours, week
ends, and holidays, in all extending over a period of about five years. If the
work serves to strengthen the traditions of one of the most important and
least recognized of the world's professions we shall be amply repaid.
It is our pleasure to acknowledge our obligations to Professor H. R.
Fairclough, of Stanford University, for perusal of and suggestions upon the first
chapter; and to those whom we have engaged from time to time for one service
or another, chiefly bibliographical work and collateral translation. We are
also sensibly obligated to the printers, Messrs. Frost & Sons, for their patience
and interest, and for their willingness to bend some of the canons of modern
printing, to meet the demands of the 16th Century.
THE RED HOUSE,
HORNTON STREET, LONDON.
BIOGRAPHY.
Georgius Agricola was born at Glauchau, in
Saxony, on March 24th, 1494, and therefore entered
the world when it was still upon the threshold of the
Renaissance; Gutenberg's first book had been print
ed but forty years before; the Humanists had but
begun that stimulating criticism which awoke the
Reformation; Erasmus, of Rotterdam, who was sub
sequently to become Agricola's friend and patron,
was just completing his student days. The Refor
mation itself was yet to come, but it was not long delayed, for Luther
was born the year before Agricola, and through him Agricola's home
land became the cradle of the great movement; nor did Agricola escape being
drawn into the conflict. Italy, already awake with the new classical revival, was
still a busy workshop of antiquarian research, translation, study, and
publication, and through her the Greek and Latin Classics were only
now available for wide distribution. Students from the rest of Europe,
among them at a later time Agricola himself, flocked to the Italian
Universities, and on their return infected their native cities with the newly
awakened learning. At Agricola's birth Columbus had just returned from his
great discovery, and it was only three years later that Vasco Da Gama rounded
Cape Good Hope. Thus these two foremost explorers had only initiated
that greatest period of geographical expansion in the world's history. A few
dates will recall how far this exploration extended during Agricola's lifetime. Balboa first saw the Pacific in 1513; Cortes entered the City of Mexico in
1520; Magellan entered the Pacific in the same year; Pizarro penetrated
into Peru in 1528; De Soto landed in Florida in 1539, and Potosi was dis
covered in 1546. Omitting the sporadic settlement on the St. Lawrence by
Cartier in 1541, the settlement of North America did not begin for a quarter
of a century after Agricola's death. Thus the revival of learning, with its
train of Humanism, the Reformation, its stimulation of exploration and the
re-awakening of the arts and sciences, was still in its infancy with Agricola.
We know practically nothing of Agricola's antecedents or his youth.
His
real name was Georg Bauer (“peasant”), and it was probably Latinized by
his teachers, as was the custom of the time. His own brother, in receipts
and in them refers to his brother “Agricola.” He entered the University of
Leipsic at the age of twenty, and after about three and one-half years' attendance
there gained the degree of In 1518 he became Vice
Principal of the Municipal School at Zwickau, where he taught Greek and Latin. In 1520 he became Principal, and among his assistants was Johannes Förster,
better known as Luther's collaborator in the translation of the Bible. During
this time our author prepared and published a small Latin GrammarIn
1522 he removed to Leipsic to become a lecturer in the University under his
friend, Petrus Mosellanus, at whose death in 1524 he went to Italy for the
further study of Philosophy, Medicine, and the Natural Sciences. Here he
remained for nearly three years, from 1524 to 1526. He visited the Universities
of Bologna, Venice, and probably Padua, and at these institutions received
his first inspiration to work in the sciences, for in a letter
Casibrotius to Erasmus we learn that he was engaged upon a revision of Galen. It was about this time that he made the acquaintance of Erasmus, who had
settled at Basel as Editor for Froben's press.
In 1526 Agricola returned to Zwickau, and in 1527 he was chosen town
physician at Joachimsthal. This little city in Bohemia is located on the
eastern slope of the Erzgebirge, in the midst of the then most prolific metal
mining district of Central Europe. Thence to Freiberg is but fifty miles,
and the same radius from that city would include most of the mining towns
so frequently mentioned in
and Altenberg—and not far away were Marienberg, Gottesgab, and Platten. Joachimsthal was a booming mining camp, founded but eleven years before
Agricola's arrival, and already having several thousand inhabitants. Accord
ing to Agricola's own statement
medical duties in visiting the mines and smelters, in reading up in the Greek and
Latin authors all references to mining, and in association with the most learned
among the mining folk. Among these was one Lorenz Berman, whom Agricola
afterward set up as the “learned miner” in his dialogue This
book was first published by Froben at Basel in 1530, and was a sort of
catechism on mineralogy, mining terms, and mining lore. The book was
apparently first submitted to the great Erasmus, and the publication arranged
by him, a warm letter of approval by him appearing at the beginning of the
bookIn 1533 he published
this being a discussion of Roman and Greek weights and measures. At
about this time he began
twenty-five years.
Agricola did not confine his interest entirely to medicine and mining,
for during this period he composed a pamphlet upon the Turks, urging their
extermination by the European powers. This work was no doubt inspired by
the Turkish siege of Vienna in 1529. It appeared first in German in 1531,
and in Latin—in which it was originally written—in 1538, and passed through
many subsequent editions.
At this time, too, he became interested in the God's Gift mine at
Albertham, which was discovered in 1530. Writing in 1545, he says
“We, as a shareholder, through the goodness of God, have enjoyed the
proceeds of this God's Gift since the very time when the mine began first
to bestow such riches.”
Agricola seems to have resigned his position at Joachimsthal in about
1530, and to have devoted the next two or three years to travel and study
among the mines. About 1533 he became city physician of Chemnitz, in
Saxony, and here he resided until his death in 1555. There is but little
record of his activities during the first eight or nine years of his residence in
this city. He must have been engaged upon the study of his subjects and
the preparation of his books, for they came on with great rapidity soon after. He was frequently consulted on matters of mining engineering, as, for instance,
we learn, from a letter written by a certain Johannes Hordeborch
Duke Henry of Brunswick applied to him with regard to the method for
working mines in the Upper Harz.
In 1543 he married Anna, widow of Matthias Meyner, a petty tithe
official; there is some reason to believe from a letter published by Schmid,
that Anna was his second wife, and that he was married the first time at
Joachimsthal. He seems to have had several children, for he commends his
young children to the care of the Town Council during his absence at the
war in 1547. In addition to these, we know that a son, Theodor, was born
in 1550; a daughter, Anna, in 1552; another daughter, Irene, was buried at
Chemnitz in 1555; and in 1580 his widow and three children—Anna,
Valerius, and Lucretia—were still living.
In 1544 began the publication of the series of books to which Agricola
owes his position. The first volume comprised five works and was finally
issued in 1546; it was subsequently considerably revised, and re-issued in 1558.
These works were:
first work on physical geology;
four “books,” on subterranean waters and gases;
ten “books,” the first systematic mineralogy;
in two “books,” devoted largely to the history of metals and topographical
mineralogy; a new edition of
Metallícarum Interpretatio,
and metallurgical terms. Another work,
usually published with It
is not a very effective basis of either geologic or zoologic classi
fication. Despite many public activities, Agricola apparently completed
did it appear until a year after his death in 1555. But we give further details
on the preparation of this work on p. xv.
During this period he found time
to prepare a small medical work,
details of which appear in the Appendix. There are other works by Agricola re
ferred to by sixteenth century writers, but so far we have not been able to find
them although they may exist. Such data as we have, is given in the appendix.
As a young man, Agricola seems to have had some tendencies toward
liberalism in religious matters, for while at Zwickau he composed some anti
Popish Epigrams; but after his return to Leipsic he apparently never wavered,
and steadily refused to accept the Lutheran Reformation. To many even
liberal scholars of the day, Luther's doctrines appeared wild and demagogic. Luther was not a scholarly man; his addresses were to the masses; his Latin
was execrable. Nor did the bitter dissensions over hair-splitting theology in
the Lutheran Church after Luther's death tend to increase respect for the
movement among the learned. Agricola was a scholar of wide attainments,
a deep-thinking, religious man, and he remained to the end a staunch Catholic,
despite the general change of sentiment among his countrymen. His leanings
were toward such men as his friend the humanist, Erasmus. That he had
the courage of his convictions is shown in the dedication of
where he addresses to his friend, Duke Maurice, the pious advice that the
dissensions of the Germans should be composed, and that the Duke should return
to the bosom of the Church those who had been torn from her, and adds: “Yet
I do not wish to become confused by these turbulent waters, and be led to
offend anyone. It is more advisable to check my utterances.” As he
became older he may have become less tolerant in religious matters, for he
did not seem to show as much patience in the discussion of ecclesiastical topics
as he must have possessed earlier, yet he maintained to the end the respect
and friendship of such great Protestants as Melanchthon, Camerarius, Fabricius,
and many others.
In 1546, when he was at the age of 52, began Agricola's activity in
public life, for in that year he was elected a Burgher of Chemnitz; and in the
same year Duke Maurice appointed him Burgomaster—an office which
he held for four terms. Before one can gain an insight into his political
services, and incidentally into the character of the man, it is necessary to
understand the politics of the time and his part therein, and to bear in mind
always that he was a staunch Catholic under a Protestant Sovereign in a
State seething with militant Protestantism.
Saxony had been divided in 1485 between the Princes Ernest and Albert,
the former taking the Electoral dignity and the major portion of the Princi
pality. Albert the Brave, the younger brother and Duke of Saxony, obtained
the subordinate portion, embracing Meissen, but subject to the Elector. The Elector Ernest was succeeded in 1486 by Frederick the Wise, and under
This
Elector was succeeded in 1525 by his brother John, who was in turn succeeded
by his son John Frederick in 1532. Of more immediate interest to this subject
is the Albertian line of Saxon Dukes who ruled Meissen, for in that Princi
pality Agricola was born and lived, and his political fortunes were associated
with this branch of the Saxon House. Albert was succeeded in 1505 by his
son George, “The Bearded,” and he in turn by his brother Henry, the last
of the Catholics, in 1539, who ruled until 1541. Henry was succeeded in 1541
by his Protestant son Maurice, who was the Patron of Agricola.
At about this time Saxony was drawn into the storms which rose from
the long-standing rivalry between Francis I., King of France, and Charles V.
of Spain. These two potentates came to the throne in the same year (1515),
and both were candidates for Emperor of that loose Confederation known
as the Holy Roman Empire. Charles was elected, and intermittent wars
between these two Princes arose—first in one part of Europe, and then in
another. Francis finally formed an alliance with the Schmalkalden League
of German Protestant Princes, and with the Sultan of Turkey, against Charles. In 1546 Maurice of Meissen, although a Protestant, saw his best interest in
a secret league with Charles against the other Protestant Princes, and pro
ceeded (the Schmalkalden War) to invade the domains of his superior and
cousin, the Elector Frederick. The Emperor Charles proved successful in
this war, and Maurice was rewarded, at the Capitulation of Wittenberg in 1547,
by being made Elector of Saxony in the place of his cousin. Later on, the
Elector Maurice found the association with Catholic Charles unpalatable, and
joined in leading the other Protestant princes in war upon him, and on the
defeat of the Catholic party and the peace of Passau, Maurice became
acknowledged as the champion of German national and religious freedom. He was succeeded by his brother Augustus in 1553.
Agricola was much favoured by the Saxon Electors, Maurice and
Augustus. He dedicates most of his works to them, and shows much gratitude
for many favours conferred upon him. Duke Maurice presented to him a
house and plot in Chemnitz, and in a letter dated June 14th, 1543,
nection therewith, says: “ . . . . that he may enjoy his life-long a
freehold house unburdened by all burgher rights and other municipal ser
vice, to be used by him and inhabited as a free dwelling, and that he may
also, for the necessities of his household and of his wife and servants, brew
his own beer free, and that he may likewise purvey for himself and his
household foreign beer and also wine for use, and yet he shall not sell any
such beer. . . . We have taken the said Doctor under our especial
protection and care for our life-long, and he shall not be summoned before
any Court of Justice, but only before us and our Councillor. . . .”
Agricola was made Burgomaster of Chemnitz in 1546. A letter
Fabricius to Meurer, dated May 19th, 1546, says that Agricola had been This would be Maurice,
and it is all the more a tribute to the high respect with which Agricola was
held, for, as said before, he was a consistent Catholic, and Maurice a Protestant
Prince. In this same year the Schmalkalden War broke out, and Agricola
was called to personal attendance upon the Duke Maurice in a diplomatic
and advisory capacity. In 1546 also he was a member of the Diet of Freiberg,
and was summoned to Council in Dresden. The next year he continued, by
the Duke's command, Burgomaster at Chemnitz, although he seems to have
been away upon Ducal matters most of the time. The Duke addresses
the Chemnitz Council in March, 1547: “We hereby make known to you
that we are in urgent need of your Burgomaster, Dr. Georgius Agricola,
with us. It is, therefore, our will that you should yield him up and forward
him that he should with the utmost haste set forth to us here near Freiberg.”
He was sent on various missions from the Duke to the Emperor Charles, to
King Ferdinand of Austria, and to other Princes in matters connected with the
war—the fact that he was a Catholic probably entering into his appointment
to such missions. Chemnitz was occupied by the troops of first one side, then
the other, despite the great efforts of Agricola to have his own town specially
defended. In April, 1547, the war came to an end in the Battle of Mühlberg,
but Agricola was apparently not relieved of his Burgomastership until the
succeeding year, for he wrote his friend Wolfgang Meurer, in April, 1548,
that he “was now relieved.” His public duties did not end, however, for he
attended the Diet of Leipzig in 1547 and in 1549, and was at the Diet
at Torgau in 1550. In 1551 he was again installed as Burgomaster; and in
1553, for the fourth time, he became head of the Municipality, and during
this year had again to attend the Diets at Leipzig and Dresden, representing
his city. He apparently now had a short relief from public duties, for it is
not until 1555, shortly before his death, that we find him again attending a
Diet at Torgau.
Agricola died on November 21st, 1555. A letter
Fabricius, to Melanchthon, announcing this event, states: “We lost, on
November 21st, that distinguished ornament of our Fatherland, Georgius
Agricola, a man of eminent intellect, of culture and of judgment. He
attained the age of 62. He who since the days of childhood had enjoyed
robust health was carried off by a four-days' fever. He had previously
suffered from no disease except inflammation of the eyes, which he brought
upon himself by untiring study and insatiable reading. . . I know that
you loved the soul of this man, although in many of his opinions, more
especially in religious and spiritual welfare, he differed in many points from
our own. For he despised our Churches, and would not be with us in the
Communion of the Blood of Christ. Therefore, after his death, at the
command of the Prince, which was given to the Church inspectors and
carried out by Tettelbach as a loyal servant, burial was refused him, and not
. . . . I have always admired the genius of this man, so distinguished
in our sciences and in the whole realm of Philosophy—yet I wonder at his
religious views, which were compatible with reason, it is true, and were
dazzling, but were by no means compatible with truth. . . . He
would not tolerate with patience that anyone should discuss ecclesiastical
matters with him.” This action of the authorities in denying burial to one
of their most honored citizens, who had been ever assiduous in furthering
the welfare of the community, seems strangely out of joint. Further, the
Elector Augustus, although a Protestant Prince, was Agricola's warm friend,
as evidenced by his letter of but a few months before (see p. xv). However,
Catholics were then few in number at Chemnitz, and the feeling ran high at the
time, so possibly the Prince was afraid of public disturbances. Hofmann
explains this occurrence in the following words:—“The feelings of Chemnitz
citizens, who were almost exclusively Protestant, must certainly be taken
into account. They may have raised objections to the solemn interment of
a Catholic in the Protestant Cathedral Church of St. Jacob, which had,
perhaps, been demanded by his relatives, and to which, according to the
custom of the time, he would have been entitled as Burgomaster. The
refusal to sanction the interment aroused, more especially in the Catholic
world, a painful sensation.”
A brass memorial plate hung in the Cathedral at Zeitz had already
disappeared in 1686, nor have the cities of his birth or residence ever shown
any appreciation of this man, whose work more deserves their gratitude
than does that of the multitude of soldiers whose monuments decorate every
village and city square. It is true that in 1822 a marble tablet was
placed behind the altar in the Church of St. Jacob in Chemnitz, but even
this was removed to the Historical Museum later on.
He left a modest estate, which was the subject of considerable litigation by
his descendants, due to the mismanagement of the guardian. Hofmann has
succeeded in tracing the descendants for two generations, down to 1609, but
the line is finally lost among the multitude of other Agricolas.
To deduce Georgius Agricola's character we need not search beyond the
discovery of his steadfast adherence to the religion of his fathers amid the
bitter storm of Protestantism around him, and need but to remember at the
same time that for twenty-five years he was entrusted with elective positions
of an increasingly important character in this same community. No man
could have thus held the respect of his countrymen unless he were devoid of
bigotry and possessed of the highest sense of integrity, justice, humanity,
and patriotism.
AGRICOLA'S INTELLECTUAL ATTAINMENTS AND
POSITION IN SCIENCE.
Agricola's education was the most thorough that his times afforded in
the classics, philosophy, medicine, and sciences generally. Further, his writings
disclose a most exhaustive knowledge not only of an extraordinary range of
classical literature, but also of obscure manuscripts buried in the public libraries
of Europe. That his general learning was held to be of a high order is amply
evidenced from the correspondence of the other scholars of his time—Erasmus,
Melanchthon, Meurer, Fabricius, and others.
Our more immediate concern, however, is with the advances which were due
to him in the sciences of Geology, Mineralogy, and Mining Engineering. No
appreciation of these attainments can be conveyed to the reader unless he
has some understanding of the dearth of knowledge in these sciences prior
to Agricola's time. We have in Appendix B given a brief review of the
literature extant at this period on these subjects. Furthermore, no appreciation
of Agricola's contribution to science can be gained without a study of
Ortu et Causís
more general interest, it contains but incidental reference to Geology and
Mineralogy. Apart from the book of Genesis, the only attempts at funda
mental explanation of natural phenomena were those of the Greek Philosophers
and the Alchemists. Orthodox beliefs Agricola scarcely mentions; with the
Alchemists he had no patience. There can be no doubt, however, that his
views are greatly coloured by his deep classical learning. He was in fine to a
certain distance a follower of Aristotle, Theophrastus, Strato, and other leaders
of the Peripatetic school. For that matter, except for the muddy current
which the alchemists had introduced into this already troubled stream,
the whole thought of the learned world still flowed from the Greeks. Had he
not, however, radically departed from the teachings of the Peripatetic school,
his work would have been no contribution to the development of science. Certain of their teachings he repudiated with great vigour, and his
laboured and detailed arguments in their refutation form the first battle in
science over the results of observation To use
his own words: “Those things which we see with our eyes and understand
by means of our senses are more clearly to be demonstrated than if learned
by means of reasoning.”
tated as much care and detail in refutation of such deep-rooted beliefs, as would
be demanded to-day by an attempt at a refutation of the theory of evolution,
and in consequence his works are often but dry reading to any but those
interested in the development of fundamental scientific theory.
In giving an appreciation of Agricola's views here and throughout the
footnotes, we do not wish to convey to the reader that he was in all things
free from error and from the spirit of his times, or that his theories, constructed
long before the atomic theory, are of the clear-cut order which that
basic hypothesis has rendered possible to later scientific speculation in these
branches. His statements are sometimes much confused, but we reiterate that
and of most of his successors for over two hundred years. As an indication of
his grasp of some of the wider aspects of geological phenomena we reproduce,
in Appendix A, a passage from
first adequate declaration of the part played by erosion in mountain sculpture. But of all of Agricola's theoretical views those are of the greatest interest which
relate to the origin of ore deposits, for in these matters he had the greatest
opportunities of observation and the most experience. We have on page 108
reproduced and discussed his theory at considerable length, but we may repeat
here, that in his propositions as to the circulation of ground waters, that ore
channels are a subsequent creation to the contained rocks, and that they
were filled by deposition from circulating solutions, he enunciated the founda
tions of our modern theory, and in so doing took a step in advance greater than
that of any single subsequent authority. In his contention that ore channels
were created by erosion of subterranean waters he was wrong, except for
special cases, and it was not until two centuries later that a further step in
advance was taken by the recognition by Van Oppel of the part played by
fissuring in these phenomena. Nor was it until about the same time that the
filling of ore channels in the main by deposition from solutions was generally
accepted. While Werner, two hundred and fifty years after Agricola, is
generally revered as the inspirer of the modern theory by those whose reading
has taken them no farther back, we have no hesitation in asserting that of the
propositions of each author, Agricola's were very much more nearly in
accord with modern views. Moreover, the main result of the new ideas
brought forward by Werner was to stop the march of progress for half a
century, instead of speeding it forward as did those of Agricola.
In mineralogy Agricola made the first attempt at systematic treatment
of the subject. His system could not be otherwise than wrongly based,
as he could scarcely see forward two or three centuries to the atomic theory
and our vast fund of chemical knowledge. However, based as it is upon
such properties as solubility and homogeneity, and upon external character
istics such as colour, hardness, &c., it makes a most creditable advance
upon Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Albertus Magnus—his only predecessors. He is the first to assert that bismuth and antimony are true primary metals;
and to some sixty actual mineral species described previous to his time he
added some twenty more, and laments that there are scores unnamed.
As to Agricola's contribution to the sciences of mining and metal
lurgy, While he describes, for the first
time, scores of methods and processes, no one would contend that they
were discoveries or inventions of his own. They represent the accumulation
of generations of experience and knowledge; but by him they were, for the
first time, to receive detailed and intelligent exposition. Until Schlüter's
work nearly two centuries later, it was not excelled. There is no measure by
which we may gauge the value of such a work to the men who followed in
this profession during centuries, nor the benefits enjoyed by humanity
through them.
That Agricola occupied a very considerable place in the great awakening of
learning will be disputed by none except by those who place the development
of science in rank far below religion, politics, literature, and art. Of wider
importance than the details of his achievements in the mere confines of the
particular science to which he applied himself, is the fact that he was the first
to found any of the natural sciences upon research and observation, as opposed
to previous fruitless speculation. The wider interest of the members of the
medical profession in the development of their science than that of geologists
in theirs, has led to the aggrandizement of Paracelsus, a contem
porary of Agricola, as the first in deductive science. Yet no comparative
study of the unparalleled egotistical ravings of this half-genius, half-alchemist,
with the modest sober logic and real research and observation of Agricola,
can leave a moment's doubt as to the incomparably greater position which
should be attributed to the latter as the pioneer in building the foundation
of science by deduction from observed phenomena. Science is the base upon
which is reared the civilization of to-day, and while we give daily credit to all
those who toil in the superstructure, let none forget those men who laid its
first foundation stones. One of the greatest of these was Georgius Agricola.
Agricola seems to have been engaged in the preparation of
Metallica
letter from Petrus Plateanus, a schoolmaster at Joachimsthal, to the great
humanist, Erasmus,
will be still more indebted to Agricola when he brings to light the books
of
publish twelve books That the appearance of this
work was eagerly anticipated is evidenced by a letter from George Fabricius
to Valentine Hertel:
are being awaited. If he treats the material at hand with his usual zeal,
he will win for himself glory such as no one in any of the fields of literature
has attained for the last thousand years.” According to the dedication of
its early publication. The work was apparently finished in 1550, for the
dedication to the Dukes Maurice and August of Saxony is dated in December of
that year. The eulogistic poem by his friend, George Fabricius, is dated in
1551.
The publication was apparently long delayed by the preparation of the
woodcuts; and, according to Mathesius,
prepared by Basilius Wefring. In the preface of
does not mention who prepared the sketches, but does say: “I have hired
illustrators to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed
by words should either not be understood by men of our own times, or
should cause difficulty to posterity.” In 1553 the completed book was
sent to Froben for publication, for a letter
March, 1553, announces its dispatch to the printer. An interesting letter
from the Elector Augustus to Agricola, dated January 18, 1555, reads:
“Most learned, dear and faithful subject, whereas you have sent to the Press
a Latin book of which the title is said to be
been praised to us and we should like to know the contents, it is our gracious
command that you should get the book translated when you have the
opportunity into German, and not let it be copied more than once or be
printed, but keep it by you and send us a copy. If you should need a
writer for this purpose, we will provide one. Thus you will fulfil our
gracious behest.” The German translation was prepared by Philip Bechius,
a Basel University Professor of Medicine and Philosophy. It is a wretched
work, by one who knew nothing of the science, and who more especially had no
appreciation of the peculiar Latin terms coined by Agricola, most of which
GEORGII AGRICOLAE
DE RE METALLICA LIBRI XII<28> QVI-
bus Officia, In&longs;trumenta, Machinæ, acomnia denique ad Metalli
tam &longs;pectantia, non modo luculenti&longs;&longs;imè de&longs;cribuntur, &longs;ed & per
effigies, &longs;uis locis in&longs;ertas, adiunctis Latinis, Germanicis&queacute; appel
lationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non po&longs;&longs;int.
BIVSDEM
DE ANIMANTIBVS SVBTERRANEIS Liber, ab Autore re
cognitus:cum Indicibus diuer&longs;is, quicquid in opere tractatum e&longs;t,
pulchrè demon&longs;trantibus.
BASILEAE M<28> D<28> LVI<28>
Cum Priuilegio Imperatoris in annos v.
& Galliarum Regis ad Sexennium.
he rendered literally.
It is a sad commentary on his countrymen that no
correct German translation exists. The Italian translation is by Michelangelo
Florio, and is by him dedicated to Elizabeth, Queen of England. The title
page of the first edition is reproduced later on, and the full titles of other
editions are given in the Appendix, together with the author's other works. The following are the short titles of the various editions of
together with the name and place of the publisher:—
LATIN EDITIONS.
In addition to these, Leupold,
edition, without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have not been able to
find a copy of this edition, and are not certain of its existence. The same
catalogues also mention an octavo edition of
1612 or 1614, with notes by Joanne Sigfrido; but we believe this to be a
confusion with Agricola's subsidiary works, which were published at this
time and place, with such notes.
GERMAN EDITIONS.
There are other editions than these, mentioned by bibliographers, but we
have been unable to confirm them in any library. The most reliable
of such bibliographies, that of John Ferguson,
above;
ITALIAN EDITION.
OTHER LANGUAGES.
So far as we know,
than Latin, German, and Italian. However, a portion of the accounts of
the firm of Froben were published in 1881
March, 1560, of a sum to one Leodigaris Grymaldo for some other work, and
also for “correction of Agricola's
of course, be an error for the Italian edition, which appeared a little later. There is also mention
An interesting note appears in
the glossary given by Sir John Pettus in his translation of Lazarus Erckern's
work on assaying. He says
any more words, because the printer calls for what I did write of a metallick
dictionary, after I first proposed the printing of Erckern, but intending
within the compass of a year to publish Georgius Agricola,
(being fully translated) in English, and also to add a dictionary to it, I
shall reserve my remaining essays (if what I have done hitherto be approved)
till then, and so I proceed in the dictionary.” The translation was never
published and extensive inquiry in various libraries and among the family
of Pettus has failed to yield any trace of the manuscript.
GEORGIVS FABRICIVS IN LI-
bros Metallicos GEORGII AGRICOL AE phi
lo&longs;ophi præ&longs;tanti&longs;&longs;imi.
AD LECTOREM.
Siiuuat ignita cogno&longs;cere fronte Chimæram,
Semicanem nympham, &longs;emibouem&queacute; uirum:
Sicentum capitum Titanem, tot&queacute; ferentem
Sublimem manibus tela cruenta Gygen:
Siiuuat Ætneum penetrare Cyclopis in antrum,
Atque alios, Vates quos peperere, metus:
Nunc placeat mecum doctos euoluere libros,
Ingenium AGRICOLAE quos dedit acre tibi.
Non hic uana tenet &longs;u&longs;pen&longs;am fabula mentem:
Sed precium, utilitas multa, legentis erit.
Quidquid terra &longs;inu, gremio&queacute; recondiditimo,
Omne tibi multis eruit ante libris:
Siue fluens &longs;uperas ultro nitatur in oras,
Inueniat facilem &longs;eu magis arte uiam.
Perpetui proprns manant de fontibus amnes,
E&longs;t grauis Albuneæ &longs;ponte Mephitis odor.
Lethales &longs;unt &longs;ponte &longs;crobes Dicæarchidis oræ,
Et micat è media conditus ignis humo.
Plana Nari&longs;corum cùm tellus ar&longs;itin agro,
Ter curua nondum falce re&longs;ecta Ceres.
Nec dedit hoc damnum pa&longs;tor, riec Iuppiterigne:
Vulcani per &longs;eruperat ira &longs;olum.
Terrifico aura foras erumpens, incita motu,
Sæpefacit montes, antè ubi plana uia e&longs;t.
Hæcab&longs;tru&longs;a cauis, imo&queacute; incognita fundo,
Cognita natura &longs;æpe fuere duce.
Arte hominum, in lucem ueniunt quoque multa, manu&queacute;
Terræ multiplices effodiuntur opes.
Lydia &longs;icnitrum profert, Islandia &longs;ulfur,
Acmodò Tyrrhenus mittit alumen ager.
Succina, quâ trifi do &longs;ubit æquor Vi&longs;tula cornu,
Pi&longs;cantur Codano corpora &longs;erua &longs;inu.
Quid memorem regum precio&longs;a in&longs;ignia gemmas,
Marmora&queacute; excel&longs;is &longs;tructa &longs;ub a&longs;tra iugis?
Nil lapides, nil &longs;axa moror: &longs;unt pulchra metalia,
Crœfetuis opibus clara, Myda&queacute; tuis,
Quæ&queacute; acer Macedo terra Creneide fodit,
Nomine permutans nomina pri&longs;ca &longs;uo.
Atnuncnon ullis cedit GERMANIA terris,
Hic auri in uenis locupletibus aura refulget,
Non alio me&longs;&longs;is carior ulla loco.
Auricomum extulerit felix Campania ramum,
Nec fructu nobis de&longs;iciente cadit.
Eruit argenti &longs;olidas hoc tempore ma&longs;&longs;as
Fo&longs;&longs;or, dc proprijs arma&queacute; miles agris.
Ignotum Graijs e&longs;t He&longs;perijs&queacute; metallum,
Quod Bi&longs;emutum lingua paterna uocat.
Candidius nigro, &longs;ed plumbo nigrius albo,
No&longs;tra quoque hoc uena diuite fundit humus.
Funditur in tormenta, corus cum imitantia fulmen,
Æs, in&queacute; ho&longs;tiles ferrea ma&longs;&longs;a domos.
Scribuntur plumbo libri: quis credidit antè
Quàm mirandam artem Teutonis ora dedit?
Nec tamen hoc alijs, aut illa petuntur ab oris,
Eruta Germano cuncta metalla &longs;olo.
Sed quid ego hæc repeto, monumentis tradita claris
AGRICOLAE, quæ nunc docta per ora uolant?
Hic cau&longs;&longs;is ortus, & formas uiribus addit,
Et quærenda quibus &longs;int meliora locis.
Quæ &longs;i mente prius legi&longs;ti candidus æqua:
Da reliquis quoque nunc tempora pauca libris.
Vtilitas &longs;equitur cultorem: crede, uoluptas
Non iucunda minor, rara legentis, erit.
Iudicio&queacute; prius ne quis malè damnet iniquo,
Quæ &longs;unt auctoris munera mira Dei:
Eripit ip&longs;e &longs;uis primùm tela ho&longs;tibus, in&queacute;
Mittentis torquet &longs;picula rapta caput.
Fertur equo latro, uehitur pirata triremi:
Ergo necandus equus, nec fabricanda ratis?
Vi&longs;ceribus terræ lateant ab&longs;tru&longs;a metalla,
Vti opibus ne&longs;cit quòd mala turba &longs;uis?
Qui&longs;quis es, aut doctis pareto monentïbus, aut te
Inter habere bonos ne fateare locum.
Se non in prærupta metallicus abijcit audax,
Vt quondam immi&longs;&longs;o Curtius acer equo:
Sed prius edi&longs;cit, quæ &longs;unt no&longs;cenda perito,
Quod&queacute; facit, multa doctus ab arte facit.
Vt&queacute; gubernator &longs;eruat cum &longs;idere uentos:
Sic minimè dubijs utitur ille notis.
Ia&longs;ides nauim, currus regit arte Meti&longs;cus:
Fo&longs;&longs;or opus peragit nec minus arte &longs;uum.
Indagat uenæ &longs;pacium, numerum&queacute;, modum&queacute;,
Siue obliqua &longs;uum, rectaúe tendatiter.
Pa&longs;tor ut explorat quæ terra &longs;it apta colenti,
Quæ bene lanigeras, quæ malè pa&longs;cat oucs.
En terræ intentus, quid uincula linea tendit?
Fungitur officio iam Ptolemæe tuo.
Vt&queacute; &longs;uæ inuenit men&longs;uram iura&queacute; uenæ,
In uarios operas diuidit ind e uiros.
Iam&queacute; aggre&longs;&longs;us opus, uiden' ut mouet omne quod ob&longs;tat,
A&longs;&longs;idua ut uer&longs;at &longs;trenuus arma manu?
Ne tibi &longs;urde&longs;cant ferri tinnitibus aures,
Ad grauiora ideo con&longs;picienda ueni.
In&longs;truit ecce &longs;uis nunc artibus ille minores:
Sedulitas nulli non opero&longs;a loco.
Metiri docet hic uenæ &longs;pacium&queacute; modum&queacute;,
Vt&queacute; regat po&longs;itis &longs;inibus arua lapis,
Ne quis transmi&longs;&longs;o uiolentus limite pergens,
Non &longs;ibi conce&longs;&longs;as, in &longs;ua uertat, opes.
Hic docet in&longs;trumenta, quibus Piutonia regna
Tutus adit, &longs;axi permeat atque uias.
Quanta (uides) &longs;olidas expugnet machina terras:
Machina non ullo tempore ui&longs;a prius.
Cede nouis, nulla non inclyta laude uetu&longs;tas,
Po&longs;teritas meritis e&longs;t quoque grata tuis.
Tum quia Germano &longs;unt hæc inuenta &longs;ub axe,
Si quis es, inuidiæ contrahe uela tuæ.
Au&longs;onis ora tumct bellis, terra Attica cultu,
Germanum in&longs;ractus tollit ad a&longs;tra labor.
Nec tamen ingenio &longs;olet infeliciter uti,
Mite gerát Phœbi, &longs;eu graue Martis opus.
Tempus ade&longs;t, &longs;tructis uenarum montibus, igne
Explorare, u&longs;um quem &longs;ibi uena ferat.
Non labor ingenio caret hic, non copia fructu,
E&longs;t adaperta bonæ prima fene&longs;tra &longs;pei.
Ergo in&longs;tat porrò grauiores ferre labores,
Intentas operi nec remouere manus.
Vrere &longs;iue locus po&longs;cat, &longs;eu tundere uenas,
Siue lauare lacu præter euntis aquæ.
Seu flammis iterum modicis torrere nece&longs;&longs;e e&longs;t,
Excoquere aut fa&longs;tis ignibus omne malum,
Cùm fluit æs riuis, auri argenti&queacute; metallum,
Spes animo fo&longs;&longs;or uix capit ip&longs;e &longs;uas.
Argentum cupidus fuluo &longs;ecernit ab auro,
Et plumbi lentam demit utrique moram.
Separat argentum, lucri &longs;tudio&longs;us, ab ære,
Seruatis, linquens deteriora, bonis.
Quæ &longs;i cuncta uelim tenui percurrere uer&longs;u,
Ante alium reuehat Memnonis o
Po&longs;tremus labor e&longs;t, concretos di&longs;cere&longs;uccos,
Quos fert innumeris Teutona terra locis.
Quo &longs;al, quo nitrum, quo pacto fiat alumen,
V&longs;ibus arti&longs;icis cùm parat illa manus:
Necnon chalcantum, &longs;ulfur, fluidumque bitumen,
Ma&longs;&longs;a&queacute; quo uitri lenta dolanda modo.
Su&longs;cipit hæc hominum mirandos cura labores,
Pauperiem u&longs;queadeo ferre famem&queacute; graue e&longs;t,
Tantus amor uictum paruis extundere natis,
Et patriæ ciuem non dare uelle malum.
Nec manet in terræ fo&longs;&longs;oris mer&longs;a latebris
Mens, &longs;ed fert domino uota preces&queacute; Deo.
Munificæ expectat, &longs;pe plenus, munera dextræ,
Extollens animum lætus ad a&longs;tra &longs;uum.
Diuitias CHRISTVS dat noticiam&queacute; fruendi,
Cui memori grates pectore &longs;emper agit.
Hoc quoque laudati quondam fecere Philippi,
Qui uirtutis habent cum pietate decus.
Huc oculos, huc flecte animum, &longs;uaui&longs;&longs;ime Lector,
Auctorem&queacute; pia no&longs;cito mente Deum.
AGRICOLAE hinc optans opero&longs;o fau&longs;ta labori,
Laudibus eximij candidus e&longs;to uiri.
Ille &longs;uum extollit patriæ cum nomine nomen,
Et uir in ore frequens po&longs;teritatis erit.
Cuncta cadunt letho, &longs;tudij monumenta uigebunt,
Purpurei doneclumina &longs;olis erunt.
Mi&longs;enæ M. D. LI.
èludo illu&longs;tri.
For completeness' sake we reproduce in the original Latin the laudation of Agricola
by his friend, Georgius Fabricius, a leading scholar of his time. It has but little intrinsic
value for it is not poetry of a very high order, and to make it acceptable English would require
certain improvements, for which only poets have license. A “free” translation of the last
few lines indicates its complimentary character:—
“He doth raise his country's fame with his own
And in the mouths of nations yet unborn
His praises shall be sung; Death comes to all
But great achievements raise a monument
Which shall endure until the sun grows cold.”
TO THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS
AND MOST MIGHTY DUKES OF
Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Margraves of Meissen,
Imperial Overlords of Saxony, Burgraves of Altenberg
and Magdeburg, Counts of Brena, Lords of
Pleissnerland, To MAURICE Grand Marshall
and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire
and to his brother AUGUSTUS,
GEORGE AGRICOLA S. D.
Most illustrious Princes, often have I considered
the metallic arts as a whole, as Moderatus Columella
considered the agricultural arts, just as if I
had been considering the whole of the human
body; and when I had perceived the various parts
of the subject, like so many members of the body,
I became afraid that I might die before I should
understand its full extent, much less before I
could immortalise it in writing. This book
itself indicates the length and breadth of the subject, and the number
and importance of the sciences of which at least some little knowledge
is necessary to miners. Indeed, the subject of mining is a very exten
sive one, and one very difficult to explain; no part of it is fully dealt
with by the Greek and Latin authors whose works survive; and since
the art is one of the most ancient, the most necessary and the most profitable
to mankind, I considered that I ought not to neglect it. Without doubt,
none of the arts is older than agriculture, but that of the metals is not
less ancient; in fact they are at least equal and coeval, for no mortal man ever
tilled a field without implements. In truth, in all the works of agricul
ture, as in the other arts, implements are used which are made from metals,
or which could not be made without the use of metals; for this reason
the metals are of the greatest necessity to man. When an art is so poor that
it lacks metals, it is not of much importance, for nothing is made without
tools. Besides, of all ways whereby great wealth is acquired by good and
honest means, none is more advantageous than mining; for although from
fields which are well tilled (not to mention other things) we derive rich yields,
yet we obtain richer products from mines; in fact, one mine is often much
more beneficial to us than many fields. For this reason we learn from the
history of nearly all ages that very many men have been made rich by the
by. But I will not now speak more of these matters, because I have
dealt with these subjects partly in the first book of this work, and partly in
the other work entitled
the charges which have been made against metals and against miners. Now, though the art of husbandry, which I willingly rank with the art of
mining, appears to be divided into many branches, yet it is not separated
into so many as this art of ours, nor can I teach the principles of this as
easily as Columella did of that. He had at hand many writers upon hus
bandry whom he could follow,—in fact, there are more than fifty Greek
authors whom Marcus Varro enumerates, and more than ten Latin ones,
whom Columella himself mentions. I have only one whom I can follow;
that is C. Plinius Secundus,
digging ores and of making metals. Far from the whole of the art having
been treated by any one writer, those who have written occasionally on any
one or another of its branches have not even dealt completely with a single
one of them. Moreover, there is a great scarcity even of these, since alone of
all the Greeks, Strato of Lampsacus,
a book on the subject,
poet Philo, a small part of which embraced to some degree the occupation
of mining.
was similar in title, miners as slaves or as persons condemned to serve in the
mines. Of the Latin writers, Pliny, as I have already said, has described
a few methods of working. Also among the authors I must include the modern
writers, whosoever they are, for no one should escape just condemnation
who fails to award due recognition to persons whose writings he uses, even
very slightly. Two books have been written in our tongue; the one on the
assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author
is unknown
said to have written, although the German book was written by Calbus of
Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task
experienced in many matters, wrote in vernacular Italian on the
subject of the melting, separating, and alloying of metals.
touched briefly on the methods of smelting certain ores, and explained
more fully the methods of making certain juices; by reading his
directions, I have refreshed my memory of those things which I myself
saw in Italy; as for many matters on which I write, he did not touch upon
them at all, or touched but lightly. This book was given me by Franciscus
Badoarius, a Patrician of Venice, and a man of wisdom and of repute; this
he had promised that he would do, when in the previous year he was at
Marienberg, having been sent by the Venetians as an Ambassador to King
Ferdinand. Beyond these books I do not find any writings on the metallic
arts. For that reason, even if the book of Strato existed, from all these
sources not one-half of the whole body of the science of mining could be
pieced together.
Seeing that there have been so few who have written on the subject of the
metals, it appears to me all the more wonderful that so many alchemists have
arisen who would compound metals artificially, and who would change one
into another. Hermolaus Barbarus,
distinguished in all kinds of learning, has mentioned the names of many in
his writings; and I will proffer more, but only famous ones, for I will limit myself
to a few. Thus Osthanes has written on
Chanes; Zosimus, the Alexandrian, to his sister Theosebia; Olympiodorus,
also an Alexandrian; Agathodæmon; Democritus, not the one of Abdera,
but some other whom I know not; Orus Chrysorichites, Pebichius, Comerius,
Joannes, Apulejus, Petasius, Pelagius, Africanus, Theophilus, Synesius,
Stephanus to Heracleus Cæsar, Heliodorus to Theodosius, Geber, Callides
Rachaidibus, Veradianus, Rodianus, Canides, Merlin, Raymond Lully,
Arnold de Villa Nova, and Augustinus Pantheus of Venice; and three women,
Cleopatra, the maiden Taphnutia, and Maria the Jewess.
employ obscure language, and Johanes Aurelius Augurellus of Rimini,
alone has used the language of poetry. There are many other books on
things use strange names, which do not properly belong to the metals, and
because some of them employ now one name and now another, invented by
themselves, though the thing itself changes not. These masters teach their
disciples that the base metals, when smelted, are broken up; also they teach
the methods by which they reduce them to the primary parts and
remove whatever is superfluous in them, and by supplying what is
wanted make out of them the precious metals—that is, gold and silver,—
all of which they carry out in a crucible. Whether they can do these things
or not I cannot decide; but, seeing that so many writers assure us with all
earnestness that they have reached that goal for which they aimed, it would
seem that faith might be placed in them; yet also seeing that we do not
read of any of them ever having become rich by this art, nor do we now see
them growing rich, although so many nations everywhere have produced, and
are producing, alchemists, and all of them are straining every nerve night and
day to the end that they may heap a great quantity of gold and silver, I should
say the matter is dubious. But although it may be due to the carelessness
of the writers that they have not transmitted to us the names of the masters
who acquired great wealth through this occupation, certainly it is clear that
their disciples either do not understand their precepts or, if they do under
stand them, do not follow them; for if they do comprehend them, seeing that
these disciples have been and are so numerous, they would have by to-day filled Even their books proclaim their vanity, for
they inscribe in them the names of Plato and Aristotle and other philosophers,
in order that such high-sounding inscriptions may impose upon simple people
and pass for learning. There is another class of alchemists who do not
change the substance of base metals, but colour them to represent gold or silver,
so that they appear to be that which they are not, and when this appearance
is taken from them by the fire, as if it were a garment foreign to them, they
return to their own character. These alchemists, since they deceive people,
are not only held in the greatest odium, but their frauds are a capital offence. No less a fraud, warranting capital punishment, is committed by a third sort
of alchemists; these throw into a crucible a small piece of gold or silver
hidden in a coal, and after mixing therewith fluxes which have the power of
extracting it, pretend to be making gold from orpiment, or silver from tin and
like substances. But concerning the art of alchemy, if it be an art, I will
speak further elsewhere. I will now return to the art of mining.
Since no authors have written of this art in its entirety, and since
foreign nations and races do not understand our tongue, and, if they did
understand it, would be able to learn only a small part of the art through the
works of those authors whom we do possess, I have written these twelve books Of these, the first book contains the arguments which may
be used against this art, and against metals and the mines, and what can be
said in their favour. The second book describes the miner, and branches into
The third book deals with veins and
stringers, and seams in the rocks. The fourth book explains the method of
delimiting veins, and also describes the functions of the mining officials. The fifth book describes the digging of ore and the surveyor's art.
The
sixth book describes the miners' tools and machines. The seventh book is
on the assaying of ore. The eighth book lays down the rules for the work of
roasting, crushing, and washing the ore. The ninth book explains the
methods of smelting ores. The tenth book instructs those who are studious
of the metallic arts in the work of separating silver from gold, and lead from
gold and silver. The eleventh book shows the way of separating silver from
copper. The twelfth book gives us rules for manufacturing salt, soda, alum,
vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass.
Although I have not fulfilled the task which I have undertaken, on account
of the great magnitude of the subject, I have, at all events, endeavoured to fulfil
it, for I have devoted much labour and care, and have even gone to some
expense upon it; for with regard to the veins, tools, vessels, sluices, machines,
and furnaces, I have not only described them, but have also hired illustrators
to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed by words
should either not be understood by men of our own times, or should cause
difficulty to posterity, in the same way as to us difficulty is often caused by
many names which the Ancients (because such words were familiar to all of
them) have handed down to us without any explanation.
I have omitted all those things which I have not myself seen, or have
That which I have
neither seen, nor carefully considered after reading or hearing of, I have not
written about. The same rule must be understood with regard to all my in
struction, whether I enjoin things which ought to be done, or describe things
which are usual, or condemn things which are done. Since the art of mining
does not lend itself to elegant language, these books of mine are correspond
ingly lacking in refinement of style. The things dealt with in this art of
metals sometimes lack names, either because they are new, or because, even
if they are old, the record of the names by which they were formerly known
has been lost. For this reason I have been forced by a necessity, for which I
must be pardoned, to describe some of them by a number of words combined,
and to distinguish others by new names,—to which latter class belong
Discretor, Lotor,
names, such as the
the name of a two-wheeled vehicle, but I have adopted it for a small vehicle
which has only one wheel; and if anyone does not approve of these names,
let him either find more appropriate ones for these things, or discover the
words used in the writings of the Ancients.
These books, most illustrious Princes, are dedicated to you for many
reasons, and, above all others, because metals have proved of the greatest
value to you; for though your ancestors drew rich profits from the revenues
of their vast and wealthy territories, and likewise from the taxes which were
paid by the foreigners by way of toll and by the natives by way of tithes, yet
they drew far richer profits from the mines. Because of the mines not a few
towns have risen into eminence, such as Freiberg, Annaberg, Marienberg,
Schneeberg, Geyer, and Altenberg, not to mention others. Nay, if I under
stand anything, greater wealth now lies hidden beneath the ground in the
mountainous parts of your territory than is visible and apparent above
ground. Farewell.
Many persons hold the opinion that the metal indus
tries are fortuitous and that the occupation is one
of sordid toil, and altogether a kind of business
requiring not so much skill as labour. But as for
myself, when I reflect carefully upon its special
points one by one, it appears to be far otherwise. For a miner must have the greatest skill in his
work, that he may know first of all what mountain
or hill, what valley or plain, can be prospected most
profitably, or what he should leave alone; moreover, he must understand the
veins, stringersThen he must be thoroughly
familiar with the many and varied species of earths, juices
stones, marbles, rocks, metals, and compoundsHe must also have a
Lastly, there are the various systems of assaying
preparing them for smelting; and here again there are many altogether
diverse methods. For there is one method for gold and silver, another
for copper, another for quicksilver, another for iron, another for lead, andAlthough the
evaporation of juices is an art apparently quite distinct from metallurgy,
yet they ought not to be considered separately, inasmuch as these juices
are also often dug out of the ground solidified, or they are produced from
certain kinds of earth and stones which the miners dig up, and some of the
juices are not themselves devoid of metals. Again, their treatment is not
simple, since there is one method for common salt, another for soda
another for alum, another for vitriol
for bitumen.
Furthermore, there are many arts and sciences of which a miner should
not be ignorant. First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the origin,
cause, and nature of subterranean things; for then he will be able to dig
out the veins easily and advantageously, and to obtain more abundant results
from his mining. Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to look
after his diggers and other workmen, that they do not meet with those
or if they do meet with them, that he himself may be able to heal them or
may see that the doctors do so. Thirdly follows Astronomy, that he may
know the divisions of the heavens and from them judge the direction of
the veins. Fourthly, there is the science of Surveying that he may be able
to estimate how deep a shaft should be sunk to reach the tunnel which is
being driven to it, and to determine the limits and boundaries in these
workings, especially in depth. Fifthly, his knowledge of Arithmetical Science
should be such that he may calculate the cost to be incurred in the
machinery and the working of the mine. Sixthly, his learning must comprise
Architecture, that he himself may construct the various machines and timber
work required underground, or that he may be able to explain the method
of the construction to others. Next, he must have knowledge of Drawing,
that he can draw plans of his machinery. Lastly, there is the Law, especially
that dealing with metals, that he may claim his own rights, that he may
undertake the duty of giving others his opinion on legal matters, that he
may not take another man's property and so make trouble for himself, and
that he may fulfil his obligations to others according to the law.
It is therefore necessary that those who take an interest in the methods
and precepts of mining and metallurgy should read these and others of our
books studiously and diligently; or on every point they should consult
expert mining people, though they will discover few who are skilled in the
whole art. As a rule one man understands only the methods of mining,
another possesses the knowledge of washing
art of smelting, another has a knowledge of measuring the hidden parts of
the earth, another is skilful in the art of making machines, and finally,
another is learned in mining law. But as for us, though we may not have
perfected the whole art of the discovery and preparation of metals, at least
we can be of great assistance to persons studious in its acquisition.
But let us now approach the subject we have undertaken.
Since there
has always been the greatest disagreement amongst men concerning metals
and mining, some praising, others utterly condemning them, therefore I have
decided that before imparting my instruction, I should carefully weigh
the facts with a view to discovering the truth in this matter.
So I may begin with the question of utility, which is a two-fold one,
for either it may be asked whether the art of mining is really profitable or
not to those who are engaged in it, or whether it is useful or not to the rest
of mankind. Those who think mining of no advantage to the men who follow
the occupation assert, first, that scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals or
other such things derive profit therefrom; and again, that miners, because they
entrust their certain and well-established wealth to dubious and slippery
fortune, generally deceive themselves, and as a result, impoverished by
lives. But persons who hold these views do not perceive how much a learned
and experienced miner differs from one ignorant and unskilled in the art. The latter digs out the ore without any careful discrimination, while the
former first assays and proves it, and when he finds the veins either too
narrow and hard, or too wide and soft, he infers therefrom that these cannot
be mined profitably, and so works only the approved ones. What wonder
then if we find the incompetent miner suffers loss, while the competent one
is rewarded by an abundant return from his mining? The same thing
applies to husbandmen. For those who cultivate land which is alike arid,
heavy, and barren, and in which they sow seeds, do not make so great a
harvest as those who cultivate a fertile and mellow soil and sow their grain
in that. And since by far the greater number of miners are unskilled rather
than skilled in the art, it follows that mining is a profitable occupation to
very few men, and a source of loss to many more. Therefore the mass of
miners who are quite unskilled and ignorant in the knowledge of veins not
infrequently lose both time and troubleSuch men are accustomed for the
most part to take to mining, either when through being weighted with the
fetters of large and heavy debts, they have abandoned a business, or desiring to
change their occupation, have left the reaping-hook and plough; and so
if at any time such a man discovers rich veins or other abounding mining
produce, this occurs more by good luck than through any knowledge on his
part. We learn from history that mining has brought wealth to many, for
from old writings it is well known that prosperous Republics, not a few kings,
and many private persons, have made fortunes through mines and their
produce. This subject, by the use of many clear and illustrious examples, I
have dilated upon and explained in the first Book of my work entitled “
Veteribus et Novis Metallis,
profitable to those who give it care and attention.
Again, those who condemn the mining industry say that it is not in the
least stable, and they glorify agriculture beyond measure. But I do not see
how they can say this with truth, for the silver-mines at Freiberg in Meissen
remain still unexhausted after 400 years, and the lead mines of Goslar after 600
years. The proof of this can be found in the monuments of history.
The
gold and silver mines belonging to the communities of Schemnitz and
Cremnitz have been worked for 800 years, and these latter are said to be
the most ancient privileges of the inhabitants. Some then say the profit
from an individual mine is unstable, as if forsooth, the miner is, or ought to
be dependent on only one mine, and as if many men do not bear in common
their expenses in mining, or as if one experienced in his art does not dig
another vein, if fortune does not amply respond to his prayers in the first
case. The New Schönberg at Freiberg has remained stable beyond the
memory of man
It is not my intention to detract anything from the dignity of agri
culture, and that the profits of mining are less stable I will always and readly
admit, for the veins do in time cease to yield metals, whereas the fields bring
lorth fruits every year. But though the business of mining may be loss
reliable it is more productive, so that in reckoning up, what is wanting in
stability is found to be made up by productiveness. Indeed, the yearly
profit of a lead mine in comparison with the fruitfulness of the best fields,
is three times or at least twice as great. How much does the profit from
gold or silver mines exceed that earned from agriculture? Wherefore truly
and shrewdly does Xenophon
“There is land of such a nature that if you sow, it does not yield crops,
but if you dig, it nourishes many more than if it had borne fruit.” So let
the farmers have for themselves the fruitful fields and cultivate the fertile
hills for the sake of their produce; but let them leave to miners the gloomy
valleys and sterile mountains, that they may draw forth from these, gens
and metals which can buy, not only the crops, but all things that are sold.
The critics say further that mining is a perilous occupation to pursue,
because the miners are sometimes killed by the pestilential air which they
breathe; sometimes their lungs rot away; sometimes the men perish by being
crushed in masses of rock; sometimes, falling from the ladders into the
shafts, they break their arms, legs, or necks; and it is added there is no com
pensation which should be thought great enough to equalize the extreme
dangers to safety and life. These occurrences, I confess, are of exceeding
gravity, and moreover, fraught with terror and peril, so that I should con
sider that the metals should not be dug up at all, if such things were to happen
very frequently to the miners, or if they could not safely guard against such
risks by any means. Who would not prefer to live rather than to possess
all things, even the metals? For he who thus perishes possesses nothing,
but relinquishes all to his heirs. But since things like this rarely happen,
and only in so far as workmen are careless, they do not deter miners from
carrying on their trade any more than it would deter a carpenter from his,
because one of his mates has acted incautiously and lost his life by falling
from a high building. I have thus answered each argument which critics are
wont to put before me when they assert that mining is an undesirable occuppa
tion, because it involves expense with uncertainty of return, because it is
changeable, and because it is dangerous to those engaged in it.
Now I come to those critics who say that mining is not useful to the
rest of mankind because forsooth, gems, metals, and other mineral products
are worthless in themselves. This admission they try to extort from us,
partly by arguments and examples, partly by misrepresentations and abuse of
us. First, they make use of this argument: “The earth does not conceal
and remove from our eyes those things which are useful and necessary to
in large abundance from her bounty and brings into the light of day the
herbs, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and the trees. The minerals on the
other hand she buries far beneath in the depth of the ground; therefore,
they should not be sought. But they are dug out by wicked men who, as
the poets say, are the products of the Iron Age.” Ovid censures their
audacity in the following lines:—
“And not only was the rich soil required to furnish corn and due
sustenance, but men even descended into the entrails of the earth, and
they dug up riches, those incentives to vice, which the earth had hidden
and had removed to the Stygian shades. Then destructive iron came
forth, and gold, more destructive than iron; then war came forth.”
Another of their arguments is this: Metals offer to men no advantages,
therefore we ought not to search them out. For whereas man is composed
of soul and body, neither is in want of minerals. The sweetest food of the
soul is the contemplation of nature, a knowledge of the finest arts and sciences,
an understanding of virtue; and if he interests his mind in excellent things,
if he exercise his body, he will be satisfied with this feast of noble thoughts and
knowledge, and have no desire for other things. Now although the human
body may be content with necessary food and clothing, yet the fruits of the
earth and the animals of different kinds supply him in wonderful abundance
with food and drink, from which the body may be suitably nourished and
strengthened and life prolonged to old age. Flax, wool, and the skins of
many animals provide plentiful clothing low in price; while a luxurious kind,
not hard to procure—that is the so called
down of trees and the webs of the silk worm. So that the body has absolutely
no need of the metals, so hidden in the depths of the earth and for the greater
part very expensive. Wherefore it is said that this maxim of Euripides is
approved in assemblies of learned men, and with good reason was always on
the lips of Socrates:
“Works of silver and purple are of use, not for human life, but
rather for Tragedians.”
These critics praise also this saying from Timocreon of Rhodes:
“O Unseeing Plutus, would that thou hadst never appeared in the
earth or in the sea or on the land, but that thou didst have thy habita
tion in Tartarus and Acheron, for out of thee arise all evil things which
overtake mankind”
They greatly extol these lines from Phocylides:
“Gold and silver are injurious to mortals; gold is the source of
crime, the plague of life, and the ruin of all things. Would that thou
were not such an attractive scourge! because of thee arise robberies,
children against parents.”
This from Naumachius also pleases them:
“Gold and silver are but dust, like the stones that lie scattered
the pebbly beach, or on the margins of the rivers.”
On the other hand, they censure these verses of Euripides:
“Plutus is the god for wise men: all else is mere folly and at t
same time a deception in words.”
So in like manner these lines from Theognis:
“O Plutus, thou most beautiful and placid god! whilst I have th
however bad I am, I can be regarded as good.”
They also blame Aristodemus, the Spartan, for these words:
“Money makes the man; no one who is poor is either good
honoured.”
And they rebuke these songs of Timocles:
“Money is the life and soul of mortal men.
He who has n
heaped up riches for himself wanders like a dead man amongst t
living.”
Finally, they blame Menander when he wrote:
“Epicharmus asserts that the gods are water, wind, fire, earth, su
and stars. But I am of opinion that the gods of any use to us are silv
and gold; for if thou wilt set these up in thy house thou mayest se
whatever thou wilt. All things will fall to thy lot; land, houses, slav
silver-work; moreover friends, judges, and witnesses. Only give free
for thus thou hast the gods to serve thee.”
But besides this, the strongest argument of the detractors is that t
fields are devastated by mining operations, for which reason forme
Italians were warned by law that no one should dig the earth for metals a
so injure their very fertile fields, their vineyards, and their olive grov
Also they argue that the woods and groves are cut down, for there is need
an endless amount of wood for timbers, machines, and the smelting of meta
And when the woods and groves are felled, then are exterminated the bea
and birds, very many of which furnish a pleasant and agreeable food for ma
Further, when the ores are washed, the water which has been used pois
the brooks and streams, and either destroys the fish or drives them awa
Therefore the inhabitants of these regions, on account of the devastation
their fields, woods, groves, brooks and rivers, find great difficulty in procur
the necessaries of life, and by reason of the destruction of the timber th
are forced to greater expense in erecting buildings. Thus it is said, it
clear to all that there is greater detriment from mining than the value
the metals which the mining produces.
So in fierce contention they clamour, showing by such examples
follow that every great man has been content with virtue, and despis
metals. They praise Bias because he esteemed the metals mer
as fortune's playthings, not as his real wealth. When his enemies h
captured his native Priene, and his fellow-citizens laden with precious thin
away none of his goods with him, and he replied, “I carry all my possessions
with me.” And it is said that Socrates, having received twenty minae sent
to him by Aristippus, a grateful disciple, refused them and sent them back to
him by the command of his conscience. Aristippus, following his example
in this matter, despised gold and regarded it as of no value. And once
when he was making a journey with his slaves, and they, laden with the
gold, went too slowly, he ordered them to keep only as much of it as they
could carry without distress and to throw away the remainderMoreover,
Anacreon of Teos, an ancient and noble poet, because he had been troubled
about them for two nights, returned five talents which had been given him
by Polycrates, saying that they were not worth the anxiety which he had
gone through on their account. In like manner celebrated and exceedingly
powerful princes have imitated the philosophers in their scorn and contempt
for gold and silver. There was for example, Phocion, the Athenian, who was
appointed general of the army so many times, and who, when a large sum of gold
was sent to him as a gift by Alexander, King of Macedon, deemed it trifling and
scorned it. And Marcus Curius ordered the gold to be carried back to the
Samnites, as did also Fabricius Luscinus with regard to the silver and
copper. And certain Republics have forbidden their citizens the use and
employment of gold and silver by law and ordinance; the Lacedaemonians,
by the decrees and ordinances of Lycurgus, used diligently to enquire among
their citizens whether they possessed any of these things or not, and the
possessor, when he was caught, was punished according to law and justice. The inhabitants of a town on the Tigris, called Babytace, buried their gold
in the ground so that no one should use it. The Scythians condemned the
use of gold and silver so that they might not become avaricious.
Further are the metals reviled; in the first place people wantonly
abuse gold and silver and call them deadly and nefarious pests of the human
race, because those who possess them are in the greatest peril, for those who
have none lay snares for the possessors of wealth, and thus again and again
the metals have been the cause of destruction and ruin. For example,
Polymnestor, King of Thrace, to obtain possession of his gold, killed Polydorus,
his noble guest and the son of Priam, his father-in-law, and old friend. Pygmalion, the King of Tyre, in order that he might seize treasures of gold
and silver, killed his sister's husband, a priest, taking no account of either
kinship or religion. For love of gold Eriphyle betrayed her husband
Amphiaraus to his enemy. Likewise Lasthenes betrayed the city of
Olynthus to Philip of Macedon. The daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, having
been bribed with gold, admitted the Sabines into the citadel of Rome. Claudius Curio sold his country for gold to Cæsar, the Dictator.
Gold, too,
was the cause of the downfall of Aesculapius, the great physician, who it was
believed was the son of Apollo. Similarly Marcus Crassus, through his
eager desire for the gold of the Parthians, was completely overcome together
with his son and eleven legions, and became the jest of his enemies; for they
“Thou hast thirsted for gold, therefore drink gold.”
But why need I cite here these many examples from history?
almost our daily experience to learn that, for the sake of obtaining gold and
silver, doors are burst open, walls are pierced, wretched travellers are struck
down by rapacious and cruel men born to theft, sacrilege, invasion, and
robbery. We see thieves seized and strung up before us, sacrilegious persons
burnt alive, the limbs of robbers broken on the wheel, wars waged for the
same reason, which are not only destructive to those against whom they are
waged, but to those also who carry them on. Nay, but they say that the
precious metals foster all manner of vice, such as the seduction of women,
adultery, and unchastity, in short, crimes of violence against the person. Therefore the Poets, when they represent Jove transformed into a golden
shower and falling into the lap of Danae, merely mean that he had found
for himself a safe road by the use of gold, by which he might enter the tower
for the purpose of violating the maiden. Moreover, the fidelity of many
men is overthrown by the love of gold and silver, judicial sentences are
bought, and innumerable crimes are perpetrated. For truly, as Propertius
says:
“This is indeed the Golden Age.
The greatest rewards come from
gold; by gold love is won; by gold is faith destroyed; by gold is justice
bought; the law follows the track of gold, while modesty will soon
follow it when law is gone.”
Diphilus says:
“I consider that nothing is more powerful than gold.
By it all
things are torn asunder; all things are accomplished.”
Therefore, all the noblest and best despise these riches, deservedly and
with justice, and esteem them as nothing. And this is said by the old man
in Plautus:
“I hate gold.
It has often impelled many people to many wrong
acts.”
In this country too, the poets inveigh with stinging reproaches against money
coined from gold and silver. And especially did Juvenal:
“Since the majesty of wealth is the most sacred thing among us;
although, O pernicious money, thou dost not yet inhabit a temple, nor
have we erected altars to money.”
And in another place:
“Demoralising money first introduced foreign customs, and
voluptuous wealth weakened our race with disgraceful luxury.”
And very many vehemently praise the barter system which men used before
money was devised, and which even now obtains among certain simple
peoples.
And next they raise a great outcry against other metals, as iron, than
life of man. For it is employed in making swords, javelins, spears, pikes,
arrows—weapons by which men are wounded, and which cause slaughter,
robbery, and wars. These things so moved the wrath of Pliny that he wrote:
“Iron is used not only in hand to hand fighting, but also to form the winged
missiles of war, sometimes for hurling engines, sometimes for lances, some
times even for arrows. I look upon it as the most deadly fruit of human
ingenuity. For to bring Death to men more quickly we have given wings to
iron and taught it to fly.”
from the catapult and other engines can be driven into the body of only one
man, while the iron cannon-ball fired through the air, can go through the
bodies of many men, and there is no marble or stone object so hard that it
cannot be shattered by the force and shock. Therefore it levels the highest
towers to the ground, shatters and destroys the strongest walls. Certainly
the ballistas which throw stones, the battering rams and other ancient war
engines for making breaches in walls of fortresses and hurling down strong
holds, seem to have little power in comparison with our present cannon. These emit horrible sounds and noises, not less than thunder, flashes
of fire burst from them like the lightning, striking, crushing, and shatter
ing buildings, belching forth flames and kindling fires even as lightning
flashes. So that with more justice could it be said of the impious men of
our age than of Salmoneus of ancient days, that they had snatched lightning
from Jupiter and wrested it from his hands. Nay, rather there has been
sent from the infernal regions to the earth this force for the destruction of
men, so that Death may snatch to himself as many as possible by one stroke.
But because muskets are nowadays rarely made of iron, and the large
ones never, but of a certain mixture of copper and tin, they confer more
maledictions on copper and tin than on iron. In this connection too, they
mention the brazen bull of Phalaris, the brazen ox of the people of Per
gamus, racks in the shape of an iron dog or a horse, manacles, shackles,
wedges, hooks, and red-hot plates. Cruelly racked by such instruments,
people are driven to confess crimes and misdeeds which they have never
committed, and innocent men are miserably tortured to death by every
conceivable kind of torment.
It is claimed too, that lead is a pestilential and noxious metal, for men
are punished by means of molten lead, as Horace describes in the ode
addressed to the Goddess Fortune: “Cruel Necessity ever goes before thee
bearing in her brazen hand the spikes and wedges, while the awful hook and
molten lead are also not lacking.”
for this metal, they are not silent about the leaden balls of muskets, and they
find in it the cause of wounds and death.
They contend that, inasmuch as Nature has concealed metals far within
the depths of the earth, and because they are not necessary to human life,
they are therefore despised and repudiated by the noblest, and should not be
cause of very great evils, it follows that mining is not useful to mankind
but on the contrary harmful and destructive. Several good men have
been so perturbed by these tragedies that they conceive an intensely bitter
hatred toward metals, and they wish absolutely that metals had never been
created, or being created, that no one had ever dug them out. The more I
commend the singular honesty, innocence, and goodness of such men, the
more anxious shall I be to remove utterly and eradicate all error from their
minds and to reveal the sound view, which is that the metals are most useful
to mankind.
In the first place then, those who speak ill of the metals and refuse to
make use of them, do not see that they accuse and condemn as wicked the
Creator Himself, when they assert that He fashioned some things vainly
and without good cause, and thus they regard Him as the Author of evils
which opinion is certainly not worthy of pious and sensible men.
In the next place, the earth does not conceal metals in her depths
because she does not wish that men should dig them out, but because
provident and sagacious Nature has appointed for each thing its place. She
generates them in the veins, stringers, and seams in the rocks, as though
in special vessels and receptacles for such material. The metals cannot be
produced in the other elements because the materials for their formation
are wanting. For if they were generated in the air, a thing that rarely
happens, they could not find a firm resting-place, but by their own force and
weight would settle down on to the ground. Seeing then that metals have
their proper abiding place in the bowels of the earth, who does not see that
these men do not reach their conclusions by good logic?
They say, “Although metals are in the earth, each located in its own
proper place where it originated, yet because they lie thus enclosed and
hidden from sight, they should not be taken out.” But, in refutation of these
attacks, which are so annoying, I will on behalf of the metals instance the
fish, which we catch, hidden and concealed though they be in the water, even
in the sea. Indeed, it is far stranger that man, a terrestrial animal, should
search the interior of the sea than the bowels of the earth. For as birds are
born to fly freely through the air, so are fishes born to swim through the
waters, while to other creatures Nature has given the earth that they might
live in it, and particularly to man that he might cultivate it and draw out
of its caverns metals and other mineral products. On the other hand, they
say that we eat fish, but neither hunger nor thirst is dispelled by minerals,
nor are they useful in clothing the body, which is another argument by
which these people strive to prove that metals should not be taken out. But
man without metals cannot provide those things which he needs for food and
clothing. For, though the produce of the land furnishes the greatest
abundance of food for the nourishment of our bodies, no labour can be
carried on and completed without tools. The ground itself is turned up
with ploughshares and harrows, tough stalks and the tops of the roots are
broken off and dug up with a mattock, the sown seed is harrowed, the corn
by scythes and threshed on the floor, or its ears are cut off and stored in the
barn and later beaten with flails and winnowed with fans, until finally the
pure grain is stored in the granary, whence it is brought forth again when
occasion demands or necessity arises. Again, if we wish to procure better
and more productive fruits from trees and bushes, we must resort to
cultivating, pruning, and grafting, which cannot be done without tools. Even as without vessels we cannot keep or hold liquids, such as milk, honey,
wine, or oil, neither could so many living things be cared for without
buildings to protect them from long-continued rain and intolerable cold. Most of the rustic instruments are made of iron, as ploughshares, share
beams, mattocks, the prongs of harrows, hoes, planes, hay-forks, straw
cutters, pruning shears, pruning hooks, spades, lances, forks, and weed
cutters. Vessels are also made of copper or lead.
Neither are wooden
instruments or vessels made without iron. Wine cellars, oil-mills, stables,
or any other part of a farm building could not be built without iron tools. Then if the bull, the wether, the goat, or any other domestic animal is led
away from the pasture to the butcher, or if the poulterer brings from the farm
a chicken, a hen, or a capon for the cook, could any of these animals be cut
up and divided without axes and knives? I need say nothing here about
bronze and copper pots for cooking, because for these purposes one could
make use of earthen vessels, but even these in turn could not be made and
fashioned by the potter without tools, for no instruments can be made out
of wood alone, without the use of iron. Furthermore, hunting, fowling, and
fishing supply man with food, but when the stag has been ensnared does not
the hunter transfix him with his spear? As he stands or runs, does he not
pierce him with an arrow? Or pierce him with a bullet?
Does not the
fowler in the same way kill the moor-fowl or pheasant with an arrow? Or
does he not discharge into its body the ball from the musket? I will not
speak of the snares and other instruments with which the woodcock, wood
pecker, and other wild birds are caught, lest I pursue unseasonably and too
minutely single instances. Lastly, with his fish-hook and net does not the
fisherman catch the fish in the sea, in the lakes, in fish-ponds, or in rivers? But the hook is of iron, and sometimes we see lead or iron weights attached
to the net. And most fish that are caught are afterward cut up and dis
embowelled with knives and axes. But, more than enough has been said on
the matter of food.
Now I will speak of clothing, which is made out of wool, flax, feathers,
hair, fur, or leather. First the sheep are sheared, then the wool is combed.
Next the threads are drawn out, while later the warp is suspended in the
shuttle under which passes the wool. This being struck by the comb, at length
cloth is formed either from threads alone or from threads and hair. Flax,
when gathered, is first pulled by hooks. Then it is dipped in water and
afterward dried, beaten into tow with a heavy mallet, and carded, then
drawn out into threads, and finally woven into cloth. But has the artisan
or weaver of the cloth any instrument not made of iron? Can one be made
The cloth or web must be cut into lengths
for the tailor. Can this be done without knife or scissors?
Can the tailor
sew together any garments without a needle? Even peoples dwelling beyond
the seas cannot make a covering for their bodies, fashioned of feathers,
without these same implements. Neither can the furriers do without them
in sewing together the pelts of any kind of animals. The shoemaker needs
a knife to cut the leather, another to scrape it, and an awl to perforate it
before he can make shoes. These coverings for the body are either woven
or stitched. Buildings too, which protect the same body from rain, wind,
cold, and heat, are not constructed without axes, saws, and augers.
But what need of more words?
If we remove metals from the service
of man, all methods of protecting and sustaining health and more care
fully preserving the course of life are done away with. If there were no
metals, men would pass a horrible and wretched existence in the midst of
wild beasts; they would return to the acorns and fruits and berries of the
forest. They would feed upon the herbs and roots which they plucked up
with their nails. They would dig out caves in which to lie down at night,
and by day they would rove in the woods and plains at random like beasts,
and inasmuch as this condition is utterly unworthy of humanity, with its
splendid and glorious natural endowment, will anyone be so foolish or
obstinate as not to allow that metals are necessary for food and clothing and
that they tend to preserve life?
Moreover, as the miners dig almost exclusively in mountains otherwise
unproductive, and in valleys invested in gloom, they do either slight damage
to the fields or none at all. Lastly, where woods and glades are cut down,
they may be sown with grain after they have been cleared from the roots of
shrubs and trees. These new fields soon produce rich crops, so that they repair
the losses which the inhabitants suffer from increased cost of timber. More
over, with the metals which are melted from the ore, birds without number,
edible beasts and fish can be purchased elsewhere and brought to these
mountainous regions.
I will pass to the illustrations I have mentioned.
Bias of Priene, when his
country was taken, carried away out of the city none of his valuables. So
strong a man with such a reputation for wisdom had no need to fear personal
danger from the enemy, but this in truth cannot be said of him because he
hastily took to flight; the throwing away of his goods does not seem to me
so great a matter, for he had lost his house, his estates, and even his country,
than which nothing is more precious. Nay, I should be convinced of Bias's
contempt and scorn for possessions of this kind, if before his country was
captured he had bestowed them freely on relations and friends, or had
distributed them to the very poor, for this he could have done freely and
without question. Whereas his conduct, which the Greeks admire so
greatly, was due, it would seem, to his being driven out by the enemy and
stricken with fear. Socrates in truth did not despise gold, but would not
accept money for his teaching. As for Aristippus of Cyrene, if he had gath
ered and saved the gold which he ordered his slaves to throw away, he might
would not. by reason of his poverty, have then been obliged to flatter the
tyrant Dionysius, nor would he ever have been called by him a King's dog. For this reason Horace, speaking of Damasippus when reviling Staberus for
valuing riches very highly, says:
“What resemblance has the Grecian Aristippus to this fellow?
He who commanded his slaves to throw away the gold in the midst of
Libya because they went too slowly, impeded by the weight of their
burden—which of these two men is the more insane?”
Insane indeed is he who makes more of riches than of virtue.
Insane
also is he who rejects them and considers them as worth nothing, instead of
using them with reason. Yet as to the gold which Aristippus on another
occasion flung into the sea from a boat, this he did with a wise and prudent
mind. For learning that it was a pirate boat in which he was sailing, and
fearing for his life, he counted his gold and then throwing it of his own will
into the sea, he groaned as if he had done it unwillingly. But afterward,
when he escaped the peril, he said: “It is better that this gold itself should
be lost than that I should have perished because of it.” Let it be granted
that some philosophers, as well as Anacreon of Teos, despised gold and
silver. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae also gave up his sheep-farms and
became a shepherd. Crates the Theban too, being annoyed that his
estate and other kinds of wealth caused him worry, and that in his con
templations his mind was thereby distracted, resigned a property valued at
ten talents, and taking a cloak and wallet, in poverty devoted all his
thought and efforts to philosophy. Is it true that because these philo
sophers despised money, all others declined wealth in cattle? Did they
refuse to cultivate lands or to dwell in houses? There were certainly many,
on the other hand, who, though affluent, became famous in the pursuit of
learning and in the knowledge of divine and human laws, such as Aristotle,
Cicero, and Seneca. As for Phocion, he did not deem it honest to accept the
gold sent to him by Alexander. For if he had consented to use it, the
king as much as himself would have incurred the hatred and aversion of
the Athenians, and these very people were afterward so ungrateful toward
this excellent man that they compelled him to drink hemlock. For what
would have been less becoming to Marcus Curius and Fabricius Luscinus
than to accept gold from their enemies, who hoped that by these means
those leaders could be corrupted or would become odious to their fellow
citizens, their purpose being to cause dissentions among the Romans and
destroy the Republic utterly. Lycurgus, however, ought to have given
instructions to the Spartans as to the use of gold and silver, instead of
abolishing things good in themselves. As to the Babytacenses, who does
not see that they were senseless and envious? For with their gold they might
have bought things of which they were in need, or even given it to neigh
bouring peoples to bind them more closely to themselves with gifts and
favours. Finally, the Scythians, by condemning the use of gold and silver
enjoying them, one who can possess other forms of property may also
become avaricious.
Now let us reply to the attacks hurled against the products of mines.
In the first place, they call gold and silver the scourge of mankind because
they are the cause of destruction and ruin to their possessors. But in this
manner, might not anything that we possess be called a scourge to
human kind,—whether it be a horse, or a garment, or anything else? For, whether one rides a splendid horse, or journeys well clad, he would
give occasion to a robber to kill him. Are we then not to ride on horses,
but to journey on foot, because a robber has once committed a murder in
order that he may steal a horse? Or are we not to possess clothing, because
a vagabond with a sword has taken a traveller's life that he may rob him
of his garment? The possession of gold and silver is similar.
Seeing
then that men cannot conveniently do all these things, we should be on our
guard against robbers, and because we cannot always protect ourselves
from their hands, it is the special duty of the magistrate to seize wicked and
villainous men for torture, and, if need be, for execution.
Again, the products of the mines are not themselves the cause of war.
Thus, for example, when a tyrant, inflamed with passion for a woman of
great beauty, makes war on the inhabitants of her city, the fault lies in the
unbridled lust of the tyrant and not in the beauty of the woman. Likewise,
when another man, blinded by a passion for gold and silver, makes war
upon a wealthy people, we ought not to blame the metals but transfer all
blame to avarice. For frenzied deeds and disgraceful actions, which are
wont to weaken and dishonour natural and civil laws, originate from our
own vices. Wherefore Tibullus is wrong in laying the blame for war on
gold, when he says: “This is the fault of a rich man's gold; there were
no wars when beech goblets were used at banquets.” But Virgil, speaking of
Polymnestor, says that the crime of the murderer rests on avarice:
“He breaks all law; he murders Polydorus, and obtains gold by
violence. To what wilt thou not drive mortal hearts, thou accursed
hunger for gold?”
And again, justly, he says, speaking of Pygmalion, who killed Sichaeus:
“And blinded with the love of gold, he slew him unawares with
stealthy sword.”
For lust and eagerness after gold and other things make men blind, and
this wicked greed for money, all men in all times and places have considered
dishonourable and criminal. Moreover, those who have been so addicted to
avarice as to be its slaves have always been regarded as mean and sordid. Similarly, too, if by means of gold and silver and gems men can overcome
the chastity of women, corrupt the honour of many people, bribe the course
of justice and commit innumerable wickednesses, it is not the metals which
are to be blamed, but the evil passions of men which become inflamed and
ignited; or it is due to the blind and impious desires of their minds. But
against money, yet inasmuch as the Poets one after another condemn it,
their criticism must be met, and this can be done by one argument alone. Money is good for those who use it well; it brings loss and evil to those who
use it ill. Hence, very rightly, Horace says:
“Dost thou not know the value of money; and what uses it serves?
It buys bread, vegetables, and a pint of wine.”
And again in another place:
“Wealth hoarded up is the master or slave of each possessor; it
should follow rather than lead, the ‘twisted rope.’ ”
When ingenious and clever men considered carefully the system of barter,
which ignorant men of old employed and which even to-day is used by
certain uncivilised and barbarous races, it appeared to them so troublesome
and laborious that they invented money. Indeed, nothing more useful
could have been devised, because a small amount of gold and silver is of as
great value as things cumbrous and heavy; and so peoples far distant from one
another can, by the use of money, trade very easily in those things which
civilised life can scarcely do without.
The curses which are uttered against iron, copper, and lead have no
weight with prudent and sensible men, because if these metals were done
away with, men, as their anger swelled and their fury became unbridled,
would assuredly fight like wild beasts with fists, heels, nails, and teeth. They would strike each other with sticks, hit one another with stones, or
dash their foes to the ground. Moreover, a man does not kill another with
iron alone, but slays by means of poison, starvation, or thirst. He may
seize him by the throat and strangle him; he may bury him alive in the
ground; he may immerse him in water and suffocate him; he may burn
or hang him; so that he can make every element a participant in the death
of men. Or, finally, a man may be thrown to the wild beasts.
Another
may be sewn up wholly except his head in a sack, and thus be left to be
devoured by worms; or he may be immersed in water until he is torn to
pieces by sea-serpents. A man may be boiled in oil; he may be greased,
tied with ropes, and left exposed to be stung by flies and hornets; he may
be put to death by scourging with rods or beating with cudgels, or struck
down by stoning, or flung from a high place. Furthermore, a man
may be tortured in more ways than one without the use of metals; as when
the executioner burns the groins and armpits of his victim with hot wax;
or places a cloth in his mouth gradually, so that when in breathing he
draws it slowly into his gullet, the executioner draws it back suddenly and
violently; or the victim's hands are fastened behind his back, and he is
drawn up little by little with a rope and then let down suddenly. Or
similarly, he may be tied to a beam and a heavy stone fastened by a
cord to his feet, or finally his limbs may be torn asunder. From these
examples we see that it is not metals that are to be condemned, but our
vices, such as anger, cruelty, discord, passion for power, avarice, and lust.
The question next arises, whether we ought to count metals amongst
the number of good things or class them amongst the bad. The Peripatetics
regarded all wealth as a good thing, and merely spoke of externals as having
to do with neither the mind nor the body. Well, let riches be an external
thing. And, as they said, many other things may be classed as good if it is
in one's power to use them either well or ill. For good men employ them for
good, and to them they are useful. The wicked use them badly, and to
them they are harmful. There is a saying of Socrates, that just as wine
is influenced by the cask, so the character of riches is like their possessors. The Stoics, whose custom it is to argue subtly and acutely, though they did
not put wealth in the category of good things, they did not count it amongst
the evil ones, but placed it in that class which they term neutral. For to
them virtue alone is good, and vice alone evil. The whole of what remains
is indifferent. Thus, in their conviction, it matters not whether one be in
good health or seriously ill; whether one be handsome or deformed. In
short:
“Whether, sprung from Inachus of old, and thus hast lived
beneath the sun in wealth, or hast been poor and despised among men,
it matters not.”
For my part, I see no reason why anything that is in itself of use should
not be placed in the class of good things. At all events, metals are a
creation of Nature, and they supply many varied and necessary needs of the
human race, to say nothing about their uses in adornment, which are so
wonderfully blended with utility. Therefore, it is not right to degrade them
from the place they hold among the good things. In truth, if there is a
bad use made of them, should they on that account be rightly called evils? For of what good things can we not make an equally bad or good use?
Let
me give examples from both classes of what we term good. Wine, by far
the best drink, if drunk in moderation, aids the digestion of food, helps to
produce blood, and promotes the juices in all parts of the body. It is of use
in nourishing not only the body but the mind as well, for it disperses our
dark and gloomy thoughts, frees us from cares and anxiety, and restores
our confidence. If drunk in excess, however, it injures and prostrates the
body with serious disease. An intoxicated man keeps nothing to himself;
he raves and rants, and commits many wicked and infamous acts. On
this subject Theognis wrote some very clever lines, which we may render
thus:
“Wine is harmful if taken with greedy lips, but if drunk in
moderation it is wholesome.”
But I linger too long over extraneous matters.
I must pass on to the
gifts of body and mind, amongst which strength, beauty, and genius
occur to me. If then a man, relying on his strength, toils hard to maintain
himself and his family in an honest and respectable manner, he uses the
gift aright, but if he makes a living out of murder and robbery, he uses it
wrongly. Likewise, too, if a lovely woman is anxious to please her husband
of passion, she misuses her beauty. In like manner, a youth who devotes
himself to learning and cultivates the liberal arts, uses his genius rightly. But he who dissembles, lies, cheats, and deceives by fraud and dishonesty,
misuses his abilities. Now, the man who, because they are abused, denies that
wine, strength, beauty, or genius are good things, is unjust and blasphemous
towards the Most High God, Creator of the World; so he who would remove
metals from the class of blessings also acts unjustly and blasphemously
against Him. Very true, therefore, are the words which certain Greek
poets have written, as Pindar:
“Money glistens, adorned with virtue; it supplies the means by
which thou mayest act well in whatever circumstances fate may
have in store for thee.”
And Sappho:
“Without the love of virtue gold is a dangerous and harmful guest,
but when it is associated with virtue, it becomes the source and height
of good.”
And Callimachus:
“Riches do not make men great without virtue; neither do virtues
themselves make men great without some wealth.”
And Antiphanes:
“Now, by the gods, why is it necessary for a man to grow rich?
Why does he desire to possess much money unless that he may, as
much as possible, help his friends, and sow the seeds of a harvest of
gratitude, sweetest of the goddesses.”
Having thus refuted the arguments and contentions of adversaries,
let us sum up the advantages of the metals. In the first place, they are
useful to the physician, for they furnish liberally the ingredients for medi
cines, by which wounds and ulcers are cured, and even plagues; so that
certainly if there were no other reasons why we should explore the depths of
the earth, we should for the sake of medicine alone dig in the mines. Again,
the metals are of use to painters, because they yield certain pigments which,
when united with the painter's slip, are injured less than others by the moisture
from without. Further, mining is useful to the architects, for thus is found
marble, which is suitable not only for strengthening large buildings, but
also for decoration. It is, moreover, helpful to those whose ambition urges
them toward immortal glory, because it yields metals from which are made
coins, statues, and other monuments, which, next to literary records, give men
in a sense immortality. The metals are useful to merchants with very great cause,
for, as I have stated elsewhere, the use of money which is made from metals is
much more convenient to mankind than the old system of exchange of commodi
ties. In short, to whom are the metals not of use?
In very truth, even the works
of art, elegant, embellished, elaborate, useful, are fashioned in various shapes by
the artist from the metals gold, silver, brass, lead, and iron. How few artists
Ev
if tools of iron or brass were not used, we could not make tools of wood a
stone without the help of metal. From all these examples are evident t
benefits and advantages derived from metals. We should not have ha
these at all unless the science of mining and metallurgy had been discovere
and handed down to us. Who then does not understand how highly usef
they are, nay rather, how necessary to the human race? In a word, ma
could not do without the mining industry, nor did Divine Providence wi
that he should.
Further, it has been asked whether to work in metals is honourab
employment for respectable people or whether it is not degrading an
dishonourable. We ourselves count it amongst the honourable arts.
Fo
that art, the pursuit of which is unquestionably not impious, nor offensive
nor mean, we may esteem honourable. That this is the nature of th
mining profession, inasmuch as it promotes wealth by good and hones
methods, we shall show presently. With justice, therefore, we may clas
it amongst honourable employments. In the first place, the occupatio
of the miner, which I must be allowed to compare with other methods o
acquiring great wealth, is just as noble as that of agriculture; for, as th
farmer, sowing his seed in his fields injures no one, however profitable they
may prove to him, so the miner digging for his metals, albeit he draws forth
great heaps of gold or silver, hurts thereby no mortal man. Certainly these
two modes of increasing wealth are in the highest degree both noble and
honourable. The booty of the soldier, however, is frequently impious,
because in the fury of the fighting he seizes all goods, sacred as well as
profane. The most just king may have to declare war on cruel tyrants,
but in the course of it wicked men cannot lose their wealth and possessions
without dragging into the same calamity innocent and poor people, old
men, matrons, maidens, and orphans. But the miner is able to accumu
late great riches in a short time, without using any violence, fraud, o
malice. That old saying is, therefore, not always true that “Every rich
man is either wicked himself, or is the heir to wickedness.”
Some, however, who contend against us, censure and attack miners by
saying that they and their children must needs fall into penury after a short
time, because they have heaped up riches by improper means. According
to them nothing is truer than the saying of the poet Naevius:
“Ill gotten gains in ill fashion slip away.”
The following are some of the wicked and sinful methods by which
they say men obtain riches from mining. When a prospect of obtaining
metals shows itself in a mine, either the ruler or magistrate drives out the
rightful owners of the mines from possession, or a shrewd and cunning
neighbour perhaps brings a law-suit against the old possessors in order to
rob them of some part of their property. Or the mine superintendent imposes
on the owners such a heavy contribution on shares, that if they cannot pay,
or will not, they lose their rights of possession; while the superintendent,
contrary to all that is right, seizes upon all that they have lost. Or,
clay that part where the metal abounds, or by covering it with earth,
stones, stakes, or poles, in the hope that after several years the pro
prietors, thinking the mine exhausted, will abandon it, and the foreman
can then excavate that remainder of the ore and keep it for himself. They even state that the scum of the miners exist wholly by fraud,
deceit, and lying. For to speak of nothing else, but only of those
deceits which are practised in buying and selling, it is said they either
advertise the veins with false and imaginary praises, so that they can
sell the shares in the mines at one-half more than they are worth, or
on the contrary, they sometimes detract from the estimate of them so
that they can buy shares for a small price. By exposing such frauds our
critics suppose all good opinion of miners is lost. Now, all wealth,
whether it has been gained by good or evil means, is liable by some adverse
chance to vanish away. It decays and is dissipated by the fault and care
lessness of the owner, since he loses it through laziness and neglect, or
wastes and squanders it in luxuries, or he consumes and exhausts it in gifts,
or he dissipates and throws it away in gambling:
“Just as though money sprouted up again, renewed from an exhausted
coffer, and was always to be obtained from a full heap.”
It is therefore not to be wondered at if miners do not keep in mind the
counsel given by King Agathocles: “Unexpected fortune should be held
in reverence,” for by not doing so they fall into penury; and particularly
when the miners are not content with moderate riches, they not rarely spend
on new mines what they have accumulated from others. But no just ruler
or magistrate deprives owners of their possessions; that, however, may be
done by a tyrant, who may cruelly rob his subjects not only of their goods
honestly obtained, but even of life itself. And yet whenever I have inquired
into the complaints which are in common vogue, I always find that the
owners who are abused have the best of reasons for driving the men from
the mines; while those who abuse the owners have no reason to complain
about them. Take the case of those who, not having paid their contributions,
have lost the right of possession, or those who have been expelled by the magis
trate out of another man's mine: for some wicked men, mining the small
veins branching from the veins rich in metal, are wont to invade the property
of another person. So the magistrate expels these men accused of wrong,
and drives them from the mine. They then very frequently spread
unpleasant rumours concerning this amongst the populace. Or, to take
another case: when, as often happens, a dispute arises between neighbours,
arbitrators appointed by the magistrate settle it, or the regular judges
investigate and give judgment. Consequently, when the judgment is given,
inasmuch as each party has consented to submit to it, neither side should
complain of injustice; and when the controversy is adjudged, inasmuch as
the decision is in accordance with the laws concerning mining, one of the
parties cannot be injured by the law. I do not vigorously contest the point,
that at times a mine superintendent may exact a larger contribution Nay, I will admit that a for
man may plaster over, or hide with a structure, a vein where it is rich i
metals. Is the wickedness of one or two to brand the many honest wit
fraud and trickery? What body is supposed to be more pious and virtuou
in the Republic than the Senate? Yet some Senators have been detecte
in peculations, and have been punished. Is this any reason that so honour
able a house should lose its good name and fame? The superintenden
cannot exact contributions from the owners without the knowledge an
permission of the Bergmeister or the deputies; for this reason decep
tion of this kind is impossible. Should the foremen be convicted o
fraud, they are beaten with rods; or of theft, they are hanged. I
is complained that some sellers and buyers of the shares in mines ar
fraudulent. I concede it.
But can they deceive anyone except a stupid
careless man, unskilled in mining matters? Indeed, a wise and pruden
man, skilled in this art, if he doubts the trustworthiness of a seller o
buyer, goes at once to the mine that he may for himself examine the vei
which has been so greatly praised or disparaged, and may consider whethe
he will buy or sell the shares or not. But people say, though such an on
can be on his guard against fraud, yet a simple man and one who is easil
credulous, is deceived. But we frequently see a man who is trying to mislea
another in this way deceive himself, and deservedly become a laughing
stock for everyone; or very often the defrauder as well as the dupe i
entirely ignorant of mining. If, for instance, a vein has been found to b
abundant in ore, contrary to the idea of the would-be deceiver, then he wh
was to have been cheated gets a profit, and he who has been the deceive
loses. Nevertheless, the miners themselves rarely buy or sell shares, bu
generally they have
have been instructed to give or accept. Seeing therefore, that magistrate
decide disputes on fair and just principles, that honest men deceive nobody
while a dishonest one cannot deceive easily, or if he does he cannot do s
with impunity, the criticism of those who wish to disparage the honesty
miners has therefore no force or weight.
In the next place, the occupation of the miner is objectionable t
nobody. For who, unless he be naturally malevolent and envious, wi
hate the man who gains wealth as it were from heaven? Or who will hat
a man who to amplify his fortune, adopts a method which is free fro
reproach? A moneylender, if he demands an excessive interest, incurs th
hatred of men. If he demands a moderate and lawful rate, so that he is n
injurious to the public generally and does not impoverish them, he fails t
become very rich from his business. Further, the gain derived from minin
is not sordid, for how can it be such, seeing that it is so great, so plentifu
and of so innocent a nature. A merchant's profits are mean and base whe
he sells counterfeit and spurious merchandise, or puts far too high a pri
on goods that he has purchased for little; for this reason the mercha
they not take account of the risk he runs to secure his merchandise. In
truth, those who on this point speak abusively of mining for the sake of
detracting from its merits, say that in former days men convicted of crimes
and misdeeds were sentenced to the mines and were worked as slaves. But
to-day the miners receive pay, and are engaged like other workmen in the
common trades.
Certainly, if mining is a shameful and discreditable employment for a
gentleman because slaves once worked mines, then agriculture also will not be
a very creditable employment, because slaves once cultivated the fields, and
even to-day do so among the Turks; nor will architecture be considered
honest, because some slaves have been found skilful in that profession;
nor medicine, because not a few doctors have been slaves; nor will any other
worthy craft, because men captured by force of arms have practised it. Yet agriculture, architecture, and medicine are none the less counted
amongst the number of honourable professions; therefore, mining
ought not for this reason to be excluded from them. But suppose we
grant that the hired miners have a sordid employment. We do not mean
by miners only the diggers and other workmen, but also those skilled in the
mining arts, and those who invest money in mines. Amongst them can be
counted kings, princes, republics, and from these last the most esteemed
citizens. And finally, we include amongst the overseers of mines the noble
Thucydides, the historian, whom the Athenians placed in charge of the
mines of Thasos.
to work with their own hands on the works or ore, especially if they them
selves have contributed to the cost of the mines. Just as it is not undignified
for great men to cultivate their own land. Otherwise the Roman Senate
would not have created Dictator L. Quintius Cincinnatus, as he was at
work in the fields, nor would it have summoned to the Senate House the
chief men of the State from their country villas. Similarly, in our day,
Maximilian Cæsar would not have enrolled Conrad in the ranks of the nobles
known as Counts; Conrad was really very poor when he served in the mines
of Schneeberg, and for that reason he was nicknamed the “poor man”; but
is a city in Lorraine, and took his name from “Luck.”
King Vladislaus have restored to the Assembly of Barons, Tursius, a
citizen of Cracow, who became rich through the mines in that part of the
kingdom of Hungary which was formerly called Dacia.
common worker in the mines is vile and abject. For, trained to vigilance
and work by night and day, he has great powers of endurance when occasion
demands, and easily sustains the fatigues and duties of a soldier, for he is
accustomed to keep long vigils at night, to wield iron tools, to dig trenches,
to drive tunnels, to make machines, and to carry burdens. Therefore, experts
in military affairs prefer the miner, not only to a commoner from the town,
but even to the rustic.
But to bring this discussion to an end, inasmuch as the chief callings
are those of the moneylender, the soldier, the merchant, the farmer, and the
miner, I say, inasmuch as usury is odious, while the spoil cruelly captured
from the possessions of the people innocent of wrong is wicked in the sight
of God and man, and inasmuch as the calling of the miner excels in honour
and dignity that of the merchant trading for lucre, while it is not less noble
though far more profitable than agriculture, who can fail to realize that
mining is a calling of peculiar dignity? Certainly, though it is but one of
ten important and excellent methods of acquiring wealth in an honourable
way, a careful and diligent man can attain this result in no easier way
than by mining.
END OF BOOK I.
Qualities which the perfect miner should possess
and the arguments which are urged for and against
the arts of mining and metallurgy, as well
as the people occupied in the industry, I
have sufficiently discussed in the first Book. Now
I have determined to give more ample information
concerning the miners.
In the first place, it is indispensable that they
should worship God with reverence, and that they
understand the matters of which I am going to speak, and that they
take good care that each individual performs his duties efficiently and
diligently. It is decreed by Divine Providence that those who know
what they ought to do and then take care to do it properly, for the
most part meet with good fortune in all they undertake; on the other
hand, misfortune overtakes the indolent and those who are careless in
their work. No person indeed can, without great and sustained effort and
labour, store in his mind the knowledge of every portion of the metallic
arts which are involved in operating mines. If a man has the means
of paying the necessary expense, he hires as many men as he needs, and
sends them to the various works. Thus formerly Sosias, the Thracian, sent
into the silver mines a thousand slaves whom he had hired from the Athenian
Nicias, the son of NiceratusBut if a man cannot afford the expenditure
he chooses of the various kinds of mining that work which he himself can
most easily and efficiently do. Of these kinds, the two most important
are the making prospect trenches and the washing of the sands of rivers, for
out of these sands are often collected gold dust, or certain black stones
from which tin is smelted, or even gems are sometimes found in them; the
trenching occasionally lays bare at the grass-roots veins which are found rich
in metals. If therefore by skill or by luck, such sands or veins shall fall
into his hands, he will be able to establish his fortune without expenditure,
and from poverty rise to wealth. If on the contrary, his hopes are not realised,
then he can desist from washing or digging.
When anyone, in an endeavour to increase his fortune, meets the
expenditure of a mine alone, it is of great importance that he should attend
to his works and personally superintend everything that he has ordered to
be done. For this reason, he should either have his dwelling at the mine,
none neglect their duties, or else he should live in the neighbourhood, so
that he may frequently inspect his mining works. Then he may send word
by a messenger to the workmen that he is coming more frequently than
he really intends to come, and so either by his arrival or by the intimation
of it, he so frightens the workmen that none of them perform their duties
otherwise than diligently. When he inspects the mines he should praise the
diligent workmen and occasionally give them rewards, that they and the
others may become more zealous in their duties; on the other hand, he
should rebuke the idle and discharge some of them from the mines and
substitute industrious men in their places. Indeed, the owner should
frequently remain for days and nights in the mine, which, in truth, is no
habitation for the idle and luxurious; it is important that the owner who
is diligent in increasing his wealth, should frequently himself descend into
the mine, and devote some time to the study of the nature of the veins and
stringers, and should observe and consider all the methods of working, both
inside and outside the mine. Nor is this all he ought to do, for sometimes
he should undertake actual labour, not thereby demeaning himself, but in
order to encourage his workmen by his own diligence, and to teach
them their art; for that mine is well conducted in which not only the
foreman, but also the owner himself, gives instruction as to what ought to
be done. A certain barbarian, according to Xenophon, rightly remarked
to the King of Persia that “the eye of the master feeds the horse,”
master's watchfulness in all things is of the utmost importance.
When several share together the expenditure on a mine, it is convenient
and useful to elect from amongst their own number a mine captain, and
also a foreman. For, since men often look after their own interests but
neglect those of others, they cannot in this case take care of their own without
at the same time looking after the interests of the others, neither can they
neglect the interests of the others without neglecting their own. But if
no man amongst them be willing or able to undertake and sustain the bur
dens of these offices, it will be to the common interest to place them in the
hands of most diligent men. Formerly indeed, these things were looked
after by the mining prefect
owned the gold mines round Abydos, or as Midas, who was the owner of
those situated in Mount Bermius, or as Gyges, or as Alyattes, or as Croesus,
who was the owner of those mines near a deserted town between Atarnea
and Pergamum
sometimes they were the property of great and illustrious families, as were
the Athenian mines in Mount Laurion
When a man owns mines but is ignorant of the art of mining, then
it is advisable that he should share in common with others the expenses,
not of one only, but of several mines. When one man alone meets the
expense for a long time of a whole mine, if good fortune bestows on him a
vein abundant in metals, or in other products, he becomes very wealthy; if,
on the contrary, the mine is poor and barren, in time he will lose everything
which he has expended on it. But the man who, in common with others,
has laid out his money on several mines in a region renowned for its wealth
of metals, rarely spends it in vain, for fortune usually responds to his
hopes in part. For when out of twelve veins in which he has a joint interest
money he has spent, but also gives a profit besides; certainly there will
be for him rich and profitable mining, if of the whole number, three, or four,
or more veins should yield metal. Very similar to this is the advice which
Xenophon gave to the Athenians when they wished to prospect for new
veins of silver without suffering loss. “There are,” he said, “ten tribes
of Athenians; if, therefore, the State assigned an equal number of
slaves to each tribe, and the tribes participated equally in all the new veins,
undoubtedly by this method, if a rich vein of silver were found by one tribe,
whatever profit were made from it would assuredly be shared by the whole
number. And if two, three, or four tribes, or even half the whole number
find veins, their works would then become more profitable; and it is not
“probable that the work of all the tribes will be disappointing”
this advice of Xenophon is full of prudence, there is no opportunity for it
except in free and wealthy States; for those people who are under the
authority of kings and princes, or are kept in subjection by tyranny, do not
dare, without permission, to incur such expenditure; those who are endowed
with little wealth and resources cannot do so on account of insufficient funds. Moreover, amongst our race it is not customary for Republics to have slaves
whom they can hire out for the benefit of the people
adays those who are in authority administer the funds for mining in the name
of the State, not unlike private individuals.
Some owners prefer to buy shares
rather than to be troubled themselves to search for the veins; these men
employ an easier and less uncertain method of increasing their property. Although their hopes in the shares of one or another mine may be frustrated,
the buyers of shares should not abandon the rest of the mines, for all the
money expended will be recovered with interest from some other mine. They should not buy only high priced shares in those mines producing metals,
nor should they buy too many in neighbouring mines where metal has not
yet been found, lest, should fortune not respond, they may be exhausted by
their losses and have nothing with which they may meet their expenses
or buy other shares which may replace their losses. This calamity over
takes those who wish to grow suddenly rich from mines, and instead, they
become very much poorer than before. So then, in the buying of shares,
as in other matters, there should be a certain limit of expenditure which
miners should set themselves, lest blinded by the desire for excessive wealth,
they throw all their money away. Moreover, a prudent owner, before he
buys shares, ought to go to the mine and carefully examine the nature of the
vein, for it is very important that he should be on his guard lest fraudulent
sellers of shares should deceive him. Investors in shares may perhaps
become less wealthy, but they are more certain of some gain than those who
mine for metals at their own expense, as they are more cautious in trusting
to fortune. Neither ought miners to be altogether distrustful of fortune, as
we see some are, who as soon as the shares of any mine begin to go up in There are some people who wash over the dumps from exhausted and
abandoned mines, and those dumps which are derived from the drains of
tunnels; and others who smelt the old slags; from all of which they make an
ample return.
Now a miner, before he begins to mine the veins, must consider seven
things, namely:—the situation, the conditions, the water, the roads, the
climate, the right of ownership, and the neighbours. There are four kinds
of situations—mountain, hill, valley, and plain. Of these four, the
first two are the most easily mined, because in them tunnels can be
driven to drain off the water, which often makes mining operations very
laborious, if it does not stop them altogether. The last two kinds of
ground are more troublesome, especially because tunnels cannot be driven
in such places. Nevertheless, a prudent miner considers all these four
sorts of localities in the region in which he happens to be, and he searches for
veins in those places where some torrent or other agency has removed and
swept the soil away; yet he need not prospect everywhere, but since there
is a great variety, both in mountains and in the three other kinds of
localities, he always selects from them those which will give him the best
chance of obtaining wealth.
In the first place, mountains differ greatly in position, some being
situated in even and level plains, while others are found in broken and
elevated regions, and others again seem to be piled up, one mountain upon
another. The wise miner does not mine in mountains which are situated on
open plains, neither does he dig in those which are placed on the summits of
mountainous regions, unless by some chance the veins in those mountains
have been denuded of their surface covering, and abounding in metals and
other products, are exposed plainly to his notice,—for with regard to what
I have already said more than once, and though I never repeat it again,
I wish to emphasize this exception as to the localities which should
not be selected. All districts do not possess a great number of mountains
crowded together; some have but one, others two, others three, or perhaps
a few more. In some places there are plains lying between them; in others
the mountains are joined together or separated only by narrow valleys. The miner should not dig in those solitary mountains, dispersed through
the plains and open regions, but only in those which are connected and
joined with others. Then again, since mountains differ in size, some being
very large, others of medium height, and others more like hills than
mountains, the miner rarely digs in the largest or the smallest of them,
but generally only in those of medium size. Moreover, mountains have a
great variety of shapes; for with some the slopes rise gradually, while
others, on the contrary, are all precipitous; in some others the slopes are
gradual on one side, and on the other sides precipitous; some are drawn
out in length; some are gently curved; others assume different
shapes. But the miner may dig in all parts of them, except where there
are precipices, and he should not neglect even these latter if metallic veins There are just as great differences in hills as
there are in mountains, yet the miner does not dig except in those situated
in mountainous districts, and even very rarely in those. It is however very
little to be wondered at that the hill in the Island of Lemnos was excavated,
for the whole is of a reddish-yellow colour, which furnishes for the inhabit
ants that valuable clay so especially beneficial to mankindIn like
manner, other hills are excavated if chalk or other varieties of earth are
exposed, but these are not prospected for.
There are likewise many varieties of valleys and plains.
One kind is
enclosed on the sides with its outlet and entrance open; another has either
its entrance or its outlet open and the rest of it is closed in; both of these are
properly called valleys. There is a third variety which is surrounded on all
sides by mountains, and these are called Some valleys again,
have recesses, and others have none; one is wide, another narrow; one
is long, another short; yet another kind is not higher than the neighbouring
plain, and others are lower than the surrounding flat country. But the
miner does not dig in those surrounded on all sides by mountains, nor in those
that are open, unless there be a low plain close at hand, or unless a vein
of metal descending from the mountains should extend into the valley. Plains differ from one another, one being situated at low elevation,
and others higher, one being level and another with a slight incline. The
miner should never excavate the low-lying plain, nor one which is perfectly
level, unless it be in some mountain, and rarely should he mine in the other
kinds of plains.
With regard to the conditions of the locality the miner should
not contemplate mining without considering whether the place be
covered with trees or is bare. If it be a wooded place, he who digs there
has this advantage, besides others, that there will be an abundant supply of
wood for his underground timbering, his machinery, buildings, smelting,
and other necessities. If there is no forest he should not mine there unless
there is a river near, by which he can carry down the timber. Yet wherever
there is a hope that pure gold or gems may be found, the ground can
be turned up, even though there is no forest, because the gems need only
to be polished and the gold to be purified. Therefore the inhabitants of
hot regions obtain these substances from rough and sandy places, where
sometimes there are not even shrubs, much less woods.
The miner should next consider the locality, as to whether it has a
perpetual supply of running water, or whether it is always devoid of water
except when a torrent supplied by rains flows down from the summits of the
mountains. The place that Nature has provided with a river or stream can
can be carried through wooden pipes to baths in dwelling-houses; it may
be carried to the works, where the metals are smelted; and finally, if the
conditions of the place will allow it, the water can be diverted into the
tunnels, so that it may turn the underground machinery. Yet on the other
hand, to convey a constant supply of water by artificial means to mines
where Nature has denied it access, or to convey the ore to the stream,
increases the expense greatly, in proportion to the distance the mines are
away from the river.
The miner also should consider whether the roads from the neighbouring
regions to the mines are good or bad, short or long. For since a region
which is abundant in mining products very often yields no agricultural
produce, and the necessaries of life for the workmen and others must all be
imported, a bad and long road occasions much loss and trouble with
porters and carriers, and this increases the cost of goods brought in, which,
therefore, must be sold at high prices. This injures not so much the work
men as the masters; since on account of the high price of goods, the work
men are not content with the wages customary for their labour, nor can
they be, and they ask higher pay from the owners. And if the owners
refuse, the men will not work any longer in the mines but will go elsewhere. Although districts which yield metals and other mineral products are
generally healthy, because, being often situated on high and lofty ground,
they are fanned by every wind, yet sometimes they are unhealthy, as has
been related in my other book, which is called “
Effluunt ex Terra.
even if they are very productive, when he perceives unmistakable signs
of pestilence. For if a man mines in an unhealthy region he may be alive
one hour and dead the next.
Then, the miner should make careful and thorough investigation con
cerning the lord of the locality, whether he be a just and good man or a
tyrant, for the latter oppresses men by force of his authority, and seizes
their possessions for himself; but the former governs justly and lawfully
and serves the common good. The miner should not start mining opera
tions in a district which is oppressed by a tyrant, but should carefully
consider if in the vicinity there is any other locality suitable for mining and
make up his mind if the overlord there be friendly or inimical. If he be
inimical the mine will be rendered unsafe through hostile attacks, in one of
which all of the gold or silver, or other mineral products, laboriously col
lected with much cost, will be taken away from the owner and his workmen
will be struck with terror; overcome by fear, they will hastily fly, to free
themselves from the danger to which they are exposed. In this case, not
only are the fortunes of the miner in the greatest peril but his very life is
in jeopardy, for which reason he should not mine in such places.
Since several miners usually come to mine the veins in one locality, a
settlement generally springs up, for the miner who began first cannot keep
it exclusively for himself. The
the cross veins, to others the inclined veins. If the man who first starts
work finds the vein to be metal-bearing or yielding other mining products,
it will not be to his advantage to cease work because the neighbourhood may
be evil, but he will guard and defend his rights both by arms and by the law. When the
of a good miner to keep within his bounds, and of a prudent one to repel
encroachments of his neighbours by the help of the law. But this is enough
about the neighbourhood.
The miner should try to obtain a mine, to which access is not difficult,
in a mountainous region, gently sloping, wooded, healthy, safe, and not far
distant from a river or stream by means of which he may convey his
mining products to be washed and smelted. This indeed, is the best
position. As for the others, the nearer they approximate to this position the
better they are; the further removed, the worse.
Now I will discuss that kind of minerals for which it is not necessary
to dig, because the force of water carries them out of the veins. Of these
there are two kinds, minerals—and their fragmentsWhen
there are springs at the outcrop of the veins from which, as I have already said,
the above-mentioned products are emitted, the miner should consider these
first, to see whether there are metals or gems mixed with the sand, or whether
the waters discharged are filled with juices. In case metals or gems have
settled in the pool of the spring, not only should the sand from it be
washed, but also that from the streams which flow from these springs, and
even from the river itself into which they again discharge. If the springs dis
charge water containing some juice, this also should be collected; the further
such a stream has flowed from the source, the more it receives plain water and
the more diluted does it become, and so much the more deficient in strength. If the stream receives no water of another kind, or scarcely any, not only
the rivers, but likewise the lakes which receive these waters, are of the same
nature as the springs, and serve the same uses; of this kind is the lake
which the Hebrews call the Dead Sea, and which is quite full of bituminous
fluidsBut I must return to the subject of the sands.
Springs may discharge their waters into a sea, a lake, a marsh, a river,
or a stream; but the sand of the sea-shore is rarely washed, for although the
water flowing down from the springs into the sea carries some metals or
gems with it, yet these substances can scarcely ever be reclaimed, because
they are dispersed through the immense body of waters and mixed up with
sink down into the depths of the sea. For the same reasons, the sands of
lakes can very rarely be washed successfully, even though the streams rising
from the mountains pour their whole volume of water into them. The
particles of metals and gems from the springs are very rarely carried into the
marshes, which are generally in level and open places. Therefore, the
miner, in the first place, washes the sand of the spring, then of the stream
which flows from it, then finally, that of the river into which the stream
discharges. It is not worth the trouble to wash the sands of a large
river which is on a level plain at a distance from the mountains. Where
several springs carrying metals discharge their waters into one river, there
is more hope of productive results from washing. The miner does not
neglect even the sands of the streams in which excavated ores have been
washed.
The waters of springs taste according to the juice they contain, and
they differ greatly in this respect. There are six kinds of these tastes which
the worker
which shows that salt may be obtained by evaporation; the nitrous, which
indicates soda; the aluminous kind, which indicates alum; the vitrioline,
which indicates vitriol; the sulphurous kind, which indicates sulphur;
and as for the bituminous juice, out of which bitumen is melted down, the
colour itself proclaims it to the worker who is evaporating it. The sea
water however, is similar to that of salt springs, and may be drawn into
low-lying pits, and, evaporated by the heat of the sun, changes of
itself into salt; similarly the water of some salt-lakes turns to salt when dried
by the heat of summer. Therefore an industrious and diligent man observes
and makes use of these things and thus contributes something to the
common welfare.
The strength of the sea condenses the liquid bitumen which flows into
it from hidden springs, into amber and jet, as I have described already in
my books “The sea, with certain
reason the search for amber demands as much care as does that for coral.
Moreover, it is necessary that those who wash the sand or evaporate
the water from the springs, should be careful to learn the nature of the
locality, its roads, its salubrity, its overlord, and the neighbours, lest on
account of difficulties in the conduct of their business they become either
impoverished by exhaustive expenditure, or their goods and lives are
imperilled. But enough about this.
The miner, after he has selected out of many places one particular spot
adapted by Nature for mining, bestows much labour and attention on the
veins. These have either been stripped bare of their covering by chance
and thus lie exposed to our view, or lying deeply hidden and concealed they
are found after close search; the latter is more usual, the former more
rarely happens, and both of these occurrences must be explained. There
is more than one force which can lay bare the veins unaided by the industry
or toil of man; since either a torrent might strip off the surface, which hap
pened in the case of the silver mines of Freiberg (concerning which I have
may be exposed through the force of the wind, when it uproots and destroys
the trees which have grown over the veins; or by the breaking away of the
rocks; or by long-continued heavy rains tearing away the mountain; or by
an earthquake; or by a lightning flash; or by a snowslide; or by the
violence of the winds: “Of such a nature are the rocks hurled down from
the mountains by the force of the winds aided by the ravages of time.” Or
the plough may uncover the veins, for Justin relates in his history that
nuggets of gold had been turned up in Galicia by the plough; or this may
occur through a fire in the forest, as Diodorus Siculus tells us happened in the
silver mines in Spain; and that saying of Posidonius is appropriate enough:
“The earth violently moved by the fires consuming the forest sends forth new
products, namely, gold and silver.”And indeed, Lucretius has ex
plained the same thing more fully in the following lines: “Copper and gold
and iron were discovered, and at the same time weighty silver and the sub
stance of lead, when fire had burned up vast forests on the great hills, either
by a discharge of heaven's lightning, or else because, when men were waging
war with one another, forest fires had carried fire among the enemy in order to
strike terror to them, or because, attracted by the goodness of the soil, they
wished to clear rich fields and bring the country into pasture, or else to destroy
wild beasts and enrich themselves with the game; for hunting with pitfalls
and with fire came into use before the practice of enclosing the wood with
toils and rousing the game with dogs. Whatever the fact is, from
crackling from their very roots, and had thoroughly baked the earth with
fire, there would run from the boiling veins and collect into the hollows of the
grounds a stream of silver and gold, as well as of copper and lead.”
yet the poet considers that the veins are not laid bare in the first instance
so much by this kind of fire, but rather that all mining had its
origin in this. And lastly, some other force may by chance disclose the
veins, for a horse, if this tale can be believed, disclosed the lead veins at
Goslar by a blow from his hoofBy such methods as these does fortune
disclose the veins to us.
But by skill we can also investigate hidden and concealed veins, by
observing in the first place the bubbling waters of springs, which cannot be
very far distant from the veins because the source of the water is from
them; secondly, by examining the fragments of the veins which the torrents
break off from the earth, for after a long time some of these fragments are
again buried in the ground. Fragments of this kind lying about on the
ground, if they are rubbed smooth, are a long distance from the veins,
because the torrent, which broke them from the vein, polished them while
it rolled them a long distance; but if they are fixed in the ground, or if
they are rough, they are nearer to the veins. The soil also should be con
sidered, for this is often the cause of veins being buried more or less deeply
under the earth; in this case the fragments protrude more or less widely
apart, and miners are wont to call the veins discovered in this manner
“
Further, we search for the veins by observing the hoar-frosts,
which whiten all herbage except that growing over the veins, because the
veins emit a warm and dry exhalation which hinders the freezing of the
moisture, for which reason such plants appear rather wet than whitened by
the frost. This may be observed in all cold places before the grass has grown
to its full size, as in the months of April and May; or when the late crop of
September. Therefore in places where the grass has a dampness that is not con
gealed into frost, there is a vein beneath: also if the exhalation be excessively
hot, the soil will produce only small and pale-coloured plants. Lastly, there
are trees whose foliage in spring time has a bluish or leaden tint, the upper
branches more especially being tinged with black or with any other unnatural
colour, the trunks cleft in two, and the branches black or discoloured. These phenomena are caused by the intensely hot and dry exhalations
which do not spare even the roots, but scorching them, render the trees
sickly; wherefore the wind will more frequently uproot trees of this kind
than any others. Verily the veins do emit this exhalation.
Therefore, in a
place where there is a multitude of trees, if a long row of them at an unusual
time lose their verdure and become black or discoloured, and frequently fall
by the violence of the wind, beneath this spot there is a vein. Likewise
along a course where a vein extends, there grows a certain herb or fungus
which is absent from the adjacent space, or sometimes even from the neigh
bourhood of the veins. By these signs of Nature a vein can be discovered.
There are many great contentions between miners concerning the forked
twig
others deny it. Some of those who manipulate and use the twig, first cut
a fork from a hazel bush with a knife, for this bush they consider more
efficacious than any other for revealing the veins, especially if the hazel Others use a different kind of twig for each metal,
when they are seeking to discover the veins, for they employ hazel twigs
for veins of silver; ash twigs for copper; pitch pine for lead and especially
tin, and rods made of iron and steel for gold. All alike grasp the forks of
the twig with their hands, clenching their fists, it being necessary that the
clenched fingers should be held toward the sky in order that the twig should
be raised at that end where the two branches meet. Then they wander
hither and thither at random through mountainous regions. It is said
that the moment they place their feet on a vein the twig immediately turns
and twists, and so by its action discloses the vein; when they move
their feet again and go away from that spot the twig becomes once more
immobile.
The truth is, they assert, the movement of the twig is caused by the
power of the veins, and sometimes this is so great that the branches of trees
growing near a vein are deflected toward it. On the other hand, those
who say that the twig is of no use to good and serious men, also deny that
the motion is due to the power of the veins, because the twigs will not move
for everybody, but only for those who employ incantations and craft. More
over, they deny the power of a vein to draw to itself the branches of trees,
but they say that the warm and dry exhalations cause these contortions. Those who advocate the use of the twig make this reply to these objections:
when one of the miners or some other person holds the twig in his hands,
and it is not turned by the force of a vein, this is due to some peculiarity
of the individual, which hinders and impedes the power of the vein, for since
the power of the vein in turning and twisting the twig may be not unlike
that of a magnet attracting and drawing iron toward itself, this hidden
quality of a man weakens and breaks the force, just the same as garlic
weakens and overcomes the strength of a magnet. For a magnet smeared
with garlic juice cannot attract iron; nor does it attract the latter when
rusty. Further, concerning the handling of the twig, they warn us that
we should not press the fingers together too lightly, nor clench them too
firmly, for if the twig is held lightly they say that it will fall before the force
of the vein can turn it; if however, it is grasped too firmly the force of the
hands resists the force of the veins and counteracts it. Therefore, they
consider that five things are necessary to insure that the twig shall serve
its purpose: of these the first is the size of the twig, for the force of the
veins cannot turn too large a stick; secondly, there is the shape of the twig,
which must be forked or the vein cannot turn it; thirdly, the power of the
vein which has the nature to turn it; fourthly, the manipulation of the twig;
fifthly, the absence of impeding peculiarities. These advocates of the twig
sum up their conclusions as follows: if the rod does not move for every
body, it is due to unskilled manipulation or to the impeding peculiarities
of the man which oppose and resist the force of the veins, as we said above,
and those who search for veins by means of the twig need not necessarily make
incantations, but it is sufficient that they handle it suitably and are devoid
of impeding power; therefore, the twig may be of use to good and serious
A—TWIG. B—TRENCH.
men in discovering veins. With regard to deflection of branches of trees
they say nothing and adhere to their opinion.
Since this matter remains in dispute and causes much dissention
amongst miners, I consider it ought to be examined on its own merits. The
wizards, who also make use of rings, mirrors and crystals, seek for veins
with a divining rod shaped like a fork; but its shape makes no difference
in the matter,—it might be straight or of some other form—for it is not
the form of the twig that matters, but the wizard's incantations
which it would not become me to repeat, neither do I wish to do so. The
Ancients, by means of the divining rod, not only procured those things neces
sary for a livelihood or for luxury, but they were also able to alter the forms
of things by it; as when the magicians changed the rods of the Egyptians
into serpents, as the writings of the Hebrews relate
Minerva with a divining rod turned the aged Ulysses suddenly into a youth,
and then restored him back again to old age; Circe also changed Ulysses'
companions into beasts, but afterward gave them back again their human
formTherefore it seems that the
divining rod passed to the mines from its impure origin with the magicians. Then when good men shrank with horror from the incantations and rejected
them, the twig was retained by the unsophisticated common miners, and
in searching for new veins some traces of these ancient usages remain.
But since truly the twigs of the miners do move, albeit they do not
generally use incantations, some say this movement is caused by the
power of the veins, others say that it depends on the manipulation, and
still others think that the movement is due to both these causes. But, in
truth, all those objects which are endowed with the power of attraction
do not twist things in circles, but attract them directly to themselves; for
instance, the magnet does not turn the iron, but draws it directly to itself,
and amber rubbed until it is warm does not bend straws about, but simply
draws them to itself. If the power of the veins were of a similar nature to
that of the magnet and the amber, the twig would not so much twist as
move once only, in a semi-circle, and be drawn directly to the vein, and unless
the strength of the man who holds the twig were to resist and oppose the
force of the vein, the twig would be brought to the ground; wherefore,
since this is not the case, it must necessarily follow that the manipulation
is the cause of the twig's twisting motion. It is a conspicuous fact that
these cunning manipulators do not use a straight twig, but a forked one
cut from a hazel bush, or from some other wood equally flexible, so that if it
be held in the hands, as they are accustomed to hold it, it turns in a circle
for any man wherever he stands. Nor is it strange that the twig does not
turn when held by the inexperienced, because they either grasp the forks of
the twig too tightly or hold them too loosely. Nevertheless, these things
give rise to the faith among common miners that veins are discovered by
the use of twigs, because whilst using these they do accidentally discover
some; but it more often happens that they lose their labour, and although
they might discover a vein, they become none the less exhausted in
digging useless trenches than do the miners who prospect in an unfortunate
locality. Therefore a miner, since we think he ought to be a good and
serious man, should not make use of an enchanted twig, because if he is
prudent and skilled in the natural signs, he understands that a forked stick
is of no use to him, for as I have said before, there are the natural indica
tions of the veins which he can see for himself without the help of twigs. So if Nature or chance should indicate a locality suitable for mining, the
miner should dig his trenches there; if no vein appears he must dig
numerous trenches until he discovers an outcrop of a vein.
force or other reveals it, or sometimes it is discovered by a shaft or a tunnel
on a
The veins after they have been discovered, and likewise the shafts and
tunnels, have names given them, either from their discoverers, as in the
case at Annaberg of the vein called “Kölergang,” because a charcoal
burner discovered it; or from their owners, as the Geyer, in Joachimstal,
because part of the same belonged to Geyer; or from their products,
as the “Pleygang” from lead, or the “Bissmutisch” at Schneeberg from
bismuth
the torrent by which they were laid bare in the valley of Joachim. More
often the first discoverers give the names either of persons, as those of
German Kaiser, Apollo, Janus; or the name of an animal, as that of lion,
bear, ram, or cow; or of things inanimate, as “silver chest” or “ox stalls”;
or of something ridiculous, as “glutton's nightshade”; or finally, for the sake
of a good omen, they call it after the Deity. In ancient times they
followed the same custom and gave names to the veins, shafts and tunnels,
as we read in Pliny: “It is wonderful that the shafts begun by Hannibal in
Spain are still worked, their names being derived from their discoverers. One of these at the present day, called Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with
three hundred pounds weight (of silver) per day.”
END OF BOOK II.
Previously I have given much information
concerning the miners, also I have discussed the
choice of localities for mining. for washing sands,
and for evaporating waters; further, I described
the method of searching for veins. With such
matters I was occupied in the second book; now I
come to the third book, which is about veins and
stringers, and the seams in the rocksThe
term “vein” is sometimes used to indicate
in the earth, but very often elsewhere by this name I have described that
which may be put in vessels
these words, for by them I mean to designate any mineral substances which
the earth keeps hidden within her own deep receptacles.
First I will speak of the veins, which, in depth, width, and length, differ
very much one from another. Those of one variety descend from the surface
of the earth to its lowest depths, which on account of this characteristic,
I am accustomed to call “
A. C.—THE MOUNTAIN. B—
Another kind, unlike the
of the earth nor descend, but lying under the ground, expand over a large
area; and on that account I call them “
Another occupies a large extent of space in length and width; there
fore I usually call it “
lation of some certain kind of mineral, as I have described in the book It occasionally happens,
though it is unusual and rare, that several accumulations of this kind are
found in one place, each one or more fathoms in depth and four or five in When
the excavation of these accumulations begins, they at first appear in the
shape of a disc; then they open out wider; finally from each of such
A, B, C, D—THE MOUNTAIN. E, F, G, H, I, K—
accumulations is usually formed a “
A— B— C—ANOTHER
A & B— C— D & E—OTHER
The space between two veins is called an
between the veins, if it is between
ground. If, however, it lies between
in sight, and the remainder is hidden.
them are one fathom wide, some are two cubits, others one cubit; others again
are a foot wide, and some only half a foot; all of which our miners call wide
veins. Others on the contrary, are only a palm wide, others three digits,
But in other places where there are
very wide veins, the widths of a cubit, or a foot, or half a foot, are said to be
narrow; at Cremnitz, for instance, there is a certain vein which measures
in one place fifteen fathoms in width, in another eighteen, and in another
twenty; the truth of this statement is vouched for by the inhabitants.
A—WIDE B—NARROW
thick, others two, or even more; some are a cubit thick, some a foot, some
only half a foot; and all these are usually called thick veins. Some on the
other hand, are but a palm thick, some three digits, some two, some one;
these are called thin veins.
A—THIN B—THICK
A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—SEAMS IN THE ROCK (
Others, on the other hand, run from west to east.
A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—
Others run from south to north.
A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—
Others, on the contrary, run from north to south.
A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—
The seams in the rocks indicate to us whether a vein runs from the
east or from the west. For instance, if the rock seams incline toward the
westward as they descend into the earth, the vein is said to run from east
to west; if they incline toward the east, the vein is said to run from west
to east; in a similar manner, we determine from the rock seams whether
the veins run north or south.
Now miners divide each quarter of the earth into six divisions; and by
this method they apportion the earth into twenty-four directions, which they
divide into two parts of twelve each. The instrument which indicates these
directions is thus constructed. First a circle is made; then at equal
intervals on one half portion of it right through to the other, twelve
straight lines called by the Greeks
are drawn through a central point which the Greeks call
the circle is thus divided into twenty-four divisions, all being of an equal
size. Then, within the circle are inscribed three other circles, the outer
most of which has cross-lines dividing it into twenty-four equal parts; the
space between it and the next circle contains two sets of twelve numbers,
inscribed on the lines called “diameters”; while within the innermost circle
it is hollowed out to contain a magnetic needleThe needle lies directly
XII is inscribed at both ends.
When the needle which is governed by the magnet points directly
from the north to the south, the number XII at its tail, which is
forked, signifies the north, that number XII which is at its point indicates
the south. The sign VI superior indicates the east, and VI inferior the
west. Further, between each two cardinal points there are always
five others which are not so important. The first two of these directions
are called the prior directions; the last two are called the posterior, and
the fifth direction lies immediately between the former and the latter; it
is halved, and one half is attributed to one cardinal point and one half to the
other. For example, between the northern number XII and the eastern
number VI, are points numbered I, II, III, IV, V, of which I and
directions lying toward the north, and III is assigned, half to the north and
half to the east.
One who wishes to know the direction of the veins underground, places
over the vein the instrument just described; and the needle, as soon as it
becomes quiet, will indicate the course of the vein. That is, if the vein
proceeds from VI to VI, it either runs from east to west, or from west to
east; but whether it be the former or the latter, is clearly shown by the
seams in the rocks. If the vein proceeds along the line which is between V
and VI toward the opposite direction, it runs from between the fifth and
sixth divisions of east to the west, or from between the fifth and sixth
divisions of west to the east; and again, whether it is the one or the other
is clearly shown by the seams in the rocks. In a similar manner we
determine the other directions.
Now miners reckon as many points as the sailors do in reckoning up
the number of the winds. Not only is this done to-day in this country, but
it was also done by the Romans who in olden times gave the winds partly
Latin names and partly names borrowed from the Greeks. Any miner who
pleases may therefore call the directions of the veins by the names of the
winds. There are four principal winds, as there are four cardinal points:
the
which blows from the west; the latter is called by the Greeks
the former
and opposed to it is the
called
to the number of twenty, as there are directions, for between each two
principal winds there are always five subordinate ones. Between the
or the Bird wind, which has the first place next to the
comes
comes
The Greeks have given these names to all of these, with the exception of
say this is the same as the Greeks called
wind) and the
one of these five; after that comes
of
In a similar manner, between
wind), first to the right of
and lastly
these, except that of
who do not distinguish the winds by so exact a plan, assert that the wind
which the Greeks called
first to the right of
lastly
do not consider the winds to be in so great a multitude, but say there are
but twelve winds in all, or at the most fourteen, assert that the wind called
by the Greeks For our
purpose it is not only useful to adopt this large number of winds, but even
to double it, as the German sailors do. They always reckon that between
each two there is one in the centre taken from both. By this method we
the winds. For instance, if a vein runs from VI east to VI west, it is said
to proceed from
which proceeds from between V and VI of the east to between V and VI
west is said to proceed out of the middle of
are similarly designated. The miner, on account of the natural properties
of a magnet, by which the needle points to the south, must fix the instru
ment already described so that east is to the left and west to the right.
In a similar way to
lateral directions, and we are able to understand from the seams in the
rocks in which direction they extend into the ground. For if these incline
toward the west in depth, the vein is said to extend from east to west;
if on the contrary, they incline toward the east, the vein is said to go from
west to east. In the same way, from the rock seams we can determine
veins running south and north, or the reverse, and likewise to the
subordinate directions and their intermediates.
A, B— C—
Further, as regards the question of direction of a
runs straight from one quarter of the earth to that quarter which is opposite,
while another one runs in a curve, in which case it may happen that a vein
proceeding from the east does not turn to the quarter opposite, which is the
west, but twists itself and turns to the south or the north.
A—STRAIGHT B—CURVED
Similarly some
some are curved.
A—HORIZONTAL B—INCLINED C—CURVED
Also the veins which we call
they descend into the depths of the earth; for some are vertical (A), some are
inclined and sloping (B), others crooked
Moreover,
the kind of locality through which they pass, for some extend along the
slopes of mountains or hills (A-C) and do not descend down the sides.
Other
or hill descend the slope (A) to the hollow or valley (B), and they again ascend
the slope or the side of the mountain or hill opposite (C)
Other
extend out into the plain (B).
Some veins run straight along on the plateaux, the hills, or plains.
A—MOUNTAINOUS PLAIN. B—
A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—TRANSVERSE VEIN. C—VEIN CUTTING PRINCIPAL ONE
OBLIQUELY.
In the next place,
which they intersect, since one may cross through a second transversely, or
one may cross another one obliquely as if cutting it in two.
If a vein which cuts through another principal one obliquely be the
harder of the two, it penetrates right through it, just as a wedge of beech or
iron can be driven through soft wood by means of a tool. If it be softer, the
principal vein either drags the soft one with it for a distance of three feet, or
perhaps one, two, three, or several fathoms, or else throws it forward along
the principal vein; but this latter happens very rarely. But that the vein
which cuts the principal one is the same vein on both sides, is shown by its
having the same character in its foot walls and hanging walls.
A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—VEIN WHICH CUTS A OBLIQUELY. C—PART CARRIED AWAY.
D—THAT PART WHICH HAS BEEN CARRIED FORWARD.
Sometimes
more outcropping veins
one is made, if they are not far distant from each other, and the one dips
into the other, or if each dips toward the other, and they thus join when they
have descended in depth. In exactly the same way, out of three or more
veins, one may be formed in depth.
A, B—TWO VEINS DESCEND INCLINED AND DIP TOWARD EACH OTHER.
C—JUNCTION. LIKEWISE TWO VEINS. D—INDICATES ONE DESCENDING VERTICALLY.
E—MARKS THE OTHER DESCENDING INCLINED, WHICH DIPS TOWARD D. F—THEIR JUNCTIO
However, such a junction of veins sometimes disunites and in this
way it happens that the vein which was the right-hand vein becomes
the left; and again, the one which was on the left becomes the right.
Furthermore, one vein may be split and divided into parts by some hard
rock resembling a beak, or stringers in soft rock may sunder the vein and
make two or more. These sometimes join together again and sometimes
remain divided.
A, B—VEINS DIVIDING. C—THE SAME JOINING.
Whether a vein is separating from or uniting with another can be deter
mined only from the seams in the rocks. For example, if a principal
vein runs from the east to the west, the rock seams descend in depth
likewise from the east toward the west, and the associated vein which
joins with the principal vein, whether it runs from the south or the north,
has its rock seams extending in the same way as its own, and they do not
conform with the seams in the rock of the principal vein—which remain
the same after the junction—unless the associated vein proceeds in the same
direction as the principal vein. In that case we name the broader vein the
principal one, and the narrower the associated vein. But if the principal
vein splits, the rock seams which belong respectively to the parts, keep
the same course when descending in depth as those of the principal vein.
But enough of
Now
we come to A
or join with it, or it may be cut by a
A, C— B— D, E—
dilatata F— G—
H, I—ITS DIVIDED PARTS. K—
Finally, a
“head” (
is said to be its “beginning,” that in which it terminates the “end.” Its
“head”
which is hidden in the earth. But miners have no need to seek the
“beginning” of veins, as formerly the kings of Egypt sought for the source
of the Nile, but it is enough for them to discover some other part of the vein
and to recognise its direction, for seldom can either the “beginning” or the
“end” be found. The direction in which the head of the vein comes into
the light, or the direction toward which the tail extends, is indicated by its
footwall and hangingwall. The latter is said to hang, and the former to lie.
The vein rests on the footwall, and the hangingwall overhangs it; thus,
when we descend a shaft, the part to which we turn the face is the foot
wall and seat of the vein, that to which we turn the back is the hanging
wall. Also in another way, the head accords with the footwall and the tail
with the hangingwall, for if the footwall is toward the south, the vein
extends its head into the light toward the south; and the hangingwall,
because it is always opposite to the footwall, is then toward the north. Consequently the vein extends its tail toward the north if it is an inclined Similarly, we can determine with regard to east and west
and the subordinate and their intermediate directions. A
which descends into the earth may be either vertical, inclined, or crooked,
the footwall of an inclined vein is easily distinguished from the hangingwall,
but it is not so with a vertical vein; and again, the footwall of a crooked
vein is inverted and changed into the hangingwall, and contrariwise the
hangingwall is twisted into the footwall, but very many of these crooked
veins may be turned back to vertical or inclined ones.
A—THE “BEGINNING” (
D—THE “TAIL” (
A
of the “head” and “tail” it has two sides.
A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C, D—THE “SIDES.”
A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C—THE “HEAD.” D—THE “TAIL.”
E—TRANSVERSE VEIN.
A
“tail,” just as a Moreover, a
a
Stringers (
versae, fibrae obliquae
fibrae dilatatae, The
the vein; the
with the vein itself; the
through it; but the
found associated with a vein.
The
other stringers, but lies on the vein, as it were, from the surface to the
hangingwall or footwall, from which it is named
In truth, as to direction, junctions, and divisions, the stringers are not
different from the veins.
A, B—VEINS. C—TRANSVERSE STRINGER. D—OBLIQUE STRINGER.
E—ASSOCIATED STRINGER. F—
A—VEIN. B—
FROM THE FOOTWALL.
Lastly, the seams, which are the very finest stringers (
the rock, and occur sometimes frequently, sometimes rarely. From
whatever direction the vein comes, its seams always turn their heads
toward the light in the same direction. But, while the seams usually run
from one point of the compass to another immediately opposite it, as
for instance, from east to west, if hard stringers divert them, it may
happen that these very seams, which before were running from east to
west, then contrariwise proceed from west to east, and the direction of
the rocks is thus inverted. In such a case, the direction of the veins is
judged, not by the direction of the seams which occur rarely, but by those
which constantly recur.
A—SEAMS WHICH PROCEED FROM THE EAST. B—THE INVERSE.
Both veins or stringers may be solid or drusy, or barren of minerals,
or pervious to water. Solid veins contain no water and very little air.
The
drusy veins rarely contain water; they often contain air. Those which
are barren of minerals often carry water. Solid veins and stringers con
sist sometimes of hard materials, sometimes of soft, and sometimes of a
kind of medium between the two.
A—SOLID VEIN. B—SOLID STRINGER. C—CAVERNOUS VEIN. D—CAVERNOUS
STRINGER. E—BARREN VEIN. F—BARREN STRINGER.
But to return to veins.
A great number of miners consider
best veins in depth are those which run from the VI or VII direction of the
east to the VI or VII direction of the west, through a mountain slope which
inclines to the north; and whose hangingwalls are in the south, and whose
footwalls are in the north, and which have their heads rising to the north,
as explained before, always like the footwall, and finally, whose rock
seams turn their heads to the east. And the veins which are the next
of the west to the VI or VII direction of the east, through the slope of a
mountain which similarly inclines to the north. whose hangingwalls
are also in the south, whose footwalls are in the north, and whose
heads rise toward the north; and lastly, whose rock seams raise
their heads toward the west. In the third place, they recommend those
veins which extend from XII north to XII south, through the slope
of a mountain which faces east; whose hangingwalls are in the
west, whose footwalls are in the east; whose heads rise toward
the east; and whose rock seams raise their heads toward the north. Therefore they devote all their energies to those veins, and give very little
or nothing to those whose heads, or the heads of whose rock seams rise
toward the south or west. For although they say these veins some
times show bright specks of pure metal adhering to the stones, or they come
upon lumps of metal, yet these are so few and far between that despite them
it is not worth the trouble to excavate such veins; and miners who persevere
in digging in the hope of coming upon a quantity of metal, always lose their
time and trouble. And they say that from veins of this kind, since the sun's
rays draw out the metallic material, very little metal is gained. But in
this matter the actual experience of the miners who thus judge of the veins
does not always agree with their opinions, nor is their reasoning sound;
since indeed the veins which run from east to west through the slope of a
mountain which inclines to the south, whose heads rise likewise to the
south, are not less charged with metals, than those to which miners are
wont to accord the first place in productiveness; as in recent years has been
proved by the St. Lorentz vein at Abertham, which our countrymen call
Gottsgaab, for they have dug out of it a large quantity of pure silver; and
lately a vein in Annaberg, called by the name of Himmelsch hoz
north to the south, with their heads rising toward the west, are no less rich
in metals than those whose heads rise toward the east.
It may be denied that the heat of the sun draws the metallic material
out of these veins; for though it draws up vapours from the surface of the
ground, the rays of the sun do not penetrate right down to the depths; because
the air of a tunnel which is covered and enveloped by solid earth to the depth of
only two fathoms is cold in summer, for the intermediate earth holds in check
the force of the sun. Having observed this fact, the inhabitants and dwellers
of very hot regions lie down by day in caves which protect them from the
excessive ardour of the sun. Therefore it is unlikely that the sun draws
out from within the earth the metallic bodies. Indeed, it cannot even dry
the moisture of many places abounding in veins, because they are pro
tected and shaded by the trees. Furthermore, certain miners, out of all
the different kinds of metallic veins, choose those which I have described,
and others, on the contrary, reject copper mines which are of this sort, so
that there seems to be no reason in this. For what can be the reason if the
sun draws no copper from copper veins, that it draws silver from silver veins,
and gold from gold veins?
Moreover, some miners, of whose number was Calbus
between the gold-bearing rivers and streams. A river, they say, or a stream,
is most productive of fine and coarse grains of gold when it comes from the
east and flows to the west, and when it washes against the foot of mountains
which are situated in the north, and when it has a level plain toward the
south or west. In the second place, they esteem a river or a stream which
flows in the opposite course from the west toward the east, and which has
the mountains to the north and the level plain to the south. In the third
place, they esteem the river or the stream which flows from the north to the
south and washes the base of the mountains which are situated in the east. But they say that the river or stream is least productive of gold which flows
in a contrary direction from the south to the north, and washes the base of Lastly, of the streams or rivers
which flow from the rising sun toward the setting sun, or which flow from
the northern parts to the southern parts, they favour those which approach
the nearest to the lauded ones, and say they are more productive of gold,
and the further they depart from them the less productive they are. Such
are the opinions held about rivers and streams. Now, since gold is not
generated in the rivers and streams, as we have maintained against
Albertus
V, but is torn away from the veins and stringers and settled in the sands of
torrents and water-courses, in whatever direction the rivers or streams flow,
therefore it is reasonable to expect to find gold therein; which is not
opposed by experience. Nevertheless, we do not deny that gold is generated
in veins and stringers which lie under the beds of rivers or streams, as in
other places.
END OF BOOK III.
The third book has explained the various and
manifold varieties of veins and stringers. This
fourth book will deal with mining areas and the
method of delimiting them, and will then pass on to
the officials who are connected with mining affairs
Now the miner, if the vein he has uncovered
is to his liking, first of all goes to the
to request to be granted a right to mine, this
official's special function and office being to adjudi
cate in respect of the mines. And so to the first man who has discovered
the vein the
meers, in the order in which each makes his application. The size of
a meer is measured by fathoms, which for miners are reckoned at six feet
each. The length, in fact, is that of a man's extended arms and hands
measured across his chest; but different peoples assign to it different lengths,
Romans five feet. So this measure which is used by miners seems to
have come down to the Germans in accordance with the Greek mode of
reckoning. A miner's foot approaches very nearly to the length of a Greek
foot, for it exceeds it by only three-quarters of a Greek digit, but like that
of the Romans it is divided into twelve
Now square fathoms are reckoned in units of one, two, three, or more
“measures”, and a “measure” is seven fathoms each way. Mining
meers are for the most part either square or elongated; in square meers all the
sides are of equal length, therefore the numbers of fathoms on the two sides
multiplied together produce the total in square fathoms. Thus, if the
shape of a “measure” is seven fathoms on every side, this number multi
plied by itself makes forty-nine square fathoms.
The sides of a long meer are of equal length, and similarly its ends are
equal; therefore, if the number of fathoms in one of the long sides be multi
plied by the number of fathoms in one of the ends, the total produced by the
SHAPE OF A SQUARE MEER.
multiplication is the total number of square fathoms in the long meer. For
example, the double measure is fourteen fathoms long and seven broad,
which two numbers multiplied together make ninety-eight square fathoms.
SHAPE OF A LONG MEER OR DOUBLE MEASURE.
Since meers vary in shape according to the different varieties of veins
it is necessary for me to go more into detail concerning them and
their measurements. If the vein is a
composed of three double measures, therefore it is forty-two fathoms in
length and seven in width, which numbers multiplied together give two
hundred and ninety-four square fathoms, and by these limits the
bounds the owner's rights in a head-meer.
SHAPE OF A HEAD MEER.
The area of every other meer consists of two double measures, on which
ever side of the head meer it lies, or whatever its number in order may be,
that is to say, whether next to the head meer, or second, third, or any later
number. Therefore, it is twenty-eight fathoms long and seven wide, so
multiplying the length by the width we get one hundred and ninety-six
square fathoms, which is the extent of the meer, and by these boundaries
the
SHAPE OF A MEER.
Now we call that part of the vein which is first discovered and mined,
the head-meer, because all the other meers run from it, just as the nerves
from the head. The
reason why he apportions a larger area to the head-meer than to the others, is
that he may give a suitable reward to the one who first found the vein
and may encourage others to search for veins. Since meers often reach
to a torrent, or river, or stream, if the last meer cannot be completed
it is called a fractionIf it is the size of a double measure, the
grants the right of mining it to him who makes the first application, but if
it is the size of a single measure or a little over, he divides it between the
nearest meers on either side of it. It is the custom among miners that
the first meer beyond a stream on that part of the vein on the opposite
side is a new head-meer, and they call it the “opposite,”
other meers beyond are only ordinary meers. Formerly every head-meer
was composed of three double measures and one single one, that is, it was
forty-nine fathoms long and seven wide, and so if we multiply these two
together we have three hundred and forty-three square fathoms, which
total gives us the area of an ancient head-meer.
SHAPE OF AN ANCIENT HEAD-MEER.
Every ancient meer was formed of a single measure, that is to say, it
was seven fathoms in length and width, and was therefore square. In
memory of which miners even now call the width of every meer which is
located on a The following was formerly the
gave information to the
proceeded personally from the town to the mountains, or sent thither men
of good repute, at least two in number, to inspect the metal-bearing vein. Thereupon, if they thought it of sufficient importance to survey, the
again having gone forth on an appointed day, thus questioned him who first
found the vein, concerning the vein and the diggings: “Which is your
vein?” “Which digging carried metal?” Then the discoverer, pointing
his finger to his vein and diggings, indicated them, and next the
ordered him to approach the windlass and place two fingers of his right hand
upon his head, and swear this oath in a clear voice: “I swear by God and
all the Saints, and I call them all to witness, that this is my vein; and more
over if it is not mine, may neither this my head nor these my hands henceforth
perform their functions.” Then the
centre of the windlass, proceeded to measure the vein with a cord, and to
give the measured portion to the discoverer,—in the first instance a half and
then three full measures; afterward one to the King or Prince, another to
his Consort, a third to the Master of the Horse, a fourth to the Cup-bearer,
a fifth to the Groom of the Chamber, a sixth to himself. Then, starting
from the other side of the windlass, he proceeded to measure the vein in a
similar manner. Thus the discoverer of the vein obtained the head-meer,
that is, seven single measures; but the King or Ruler, his Consort, the leading
dignitaries, and lastly, the
ancient meers. This is the reason there are to be found at Freiberg in Meissen
so many shafts with so many intercommunications on a single vein—which are
to a great extent destroyed by age. If, however, the
fixed the boundaries of the meers on one side of the shaft for the benefit of
some other discoverer, then for those dignitaries I have just mentioned,
as many meers as he was unable to award on that side he duplicated
on the other. But if on both sides of the shaft he had already defined the
boundaries of meers, he proceeded to measure out only that part of the
vein which remained free, and thus it sometimes happened that some of
those persons I have mentioned obtained no meer at all. To-day, though
that old-established custom is observed, the method of allotting the vein
and granting title has been changed. As I have explained above, the head
meer consists of three double measures, and each other meer of two
measures, and the
makes the first application. The King or Prince, since all metal is taxed, is
himself content with that, which is usually one-tenth.
Of the width of every meer, whether old or new, one-half lies on the
footwall side of a If
the vein descends vertically into the earth, the boundaries similarly descend The owner always holds the mining right for the width of the meer, however
far the vein descends into the depth of the earth.
on application being made to him, grants to one owner or company a right
the next meer or two adjoining meers. So much for the shape of meers
and their dimensions in the case of a
I now come to the case of The boundaries of the areas
For in some places the
profundae,
measures, and the area of every other mine of two measures, as I have In this case, however, he measures the meers
with a cord, not only forward and backward from the ends of the head
meer, as he is wont to do in the case where the owner of a
a meer granted him, but also from the sides. In this way meers are marked
dílatata
or hill or on a plain. Elsewhere the
head-meer and it is made fourteen fathoms wide, while the width of each of
the other meers remains single, that is seven fathoms, but the length is not
defined by boundaries. In some places the head-meer consists of three
double measures, but has a width of fourteen fathoms and a length of
twenty-one.
SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.
In the same way, every other meer is composed of two measures,
doubled in the same fashion, so that it is fourteen fathoms in width and
of the same length.
SHAPE OF EVERY OTHER MEER.
Elsewhere every meer, whether a head-meer or other meer, comprises
forty-two fathoms in width and as many in length.
In other places the
locality defined by rivers or little valleys as boundaries. But the boundaries
of every such area of whatsoever shape it be, descend vertically into the
earth; so the owner of that area has a right over that part of any
dilatata
a
as lies within the boundaries of his meer; for just as wherever one
profunda
dílatata
Finally, the
for in some localities the head-meer is composed of three measures, doubled
in such a way that it is fourteen fathoms wide and twenty-one long; and
every other meer consists of two measures doubled, and is square, that is,
fourteen fathoms wide and as many long. In some places the head-meer
is composed of three single measures, and its width is seven fathoms and
its length twenty-one, which two numbers multiplied together make one
hundred and forty-seven square fathoms.
SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.
Each other meer consists of one double measure.
In some places the
head-meer is given the shape of a double measure, and every other meer that
of a single measure. Lastly, in other places the owner or a company is given
a right over some complete specified locality bounded by little streams,
valleys, or other limits. Furthermore, all meers on
the case of
each meer has the boundaries so determined as to prevent disputes arising
between the owners of neighbouring mines.
The boundary marks in use among miners formerly consisted only of
stones, and from this their name was derived, for now the marks of a
boundary are called “boundary stones.” To-day a row of posts, made either
of oak or pine, and strengthened at the top with iron rings to prevent them
from being damaged, is fixed beside the boundary stones to make them
more conspicuous. By this method in former times the boundaries of the
fields were marked by stones or posts, not only as written of in the book “
Limítíbus Agrorum,Such
kinds of veins.
Now tunnels are of two sorts, one kind having no right of property, the
other kind having some limited right. For when a miner in some particular
locality is unable to open a vein on account of a great quantity of water, he
runs a wide ditch, open at the top and three feet deep, starting on the slope
and running up to the place where the vein is found. Through it the water
flows off, so that the place is made dry and fit for digging. But if it is not
sufficiently dried by this open ditch, or if a shaft which he has now for
the first time begun to sink is suffering from overmuch water, he goes to
the Having obtained leave, he drives the tunnel, and into its drains all the
water is diverted, so that the place or shaft is made fit for digging. If
it is not seven fathoms from the surface of the earth to the bottom of this
kind of tunnel, the owner possesses no rights except this one: namely, that
the owners of the mines, from whose leases the owner of the tunnel extracts
gold or silver, themselves pay him the sum he expends within their meer in
driving the tunnel through it.
To a depth or height of three and a half fathoms above and below the
mouth of the tunnel, no one is allowed to begin another tunnel. The reason
for this is that this kind of a tunnel is liable to be changed into the other
kind which has a complete right of property, when it drains the meers to a
depth of seven fathoms, or to ten, according as the old custom in each place
acquires the force of law. In such case this second kind of tunnel has the
following right; in the first place, whatever metal the owner, or company
owning it, finds in any meer through which it is driven, all belongs to the
tunnel owner within a height or depth of one and a quarter fathoms. In
the years which are not long passed, the owner of a tunnel possessed all the
metal which a miner standing at the bottom of the tunnel touched with
a bar, whose handle did not exceed the customary length; but nowadays
a certain prescribed height and width is allowed to the owner of the tunnel,
lest the owners of the mines be damaged, if the length of the bar be
longer than usual. Further, every metal-yielding mine which is drained
and supplied with ventilation by a tunnel, is taxed in the proportion of one
ninth for the benefit of the owner of the tunnel. But if several tunnels of
this kind are driven through one mining area which is yielding metals, and
all drain it and supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug
out from above the bottom of each tunnel, one-ninth is given to the owner of
that tunnel; of that which is dug out below the bottom of each tunnel,
one-ninth is in each case given to the owner of the tunnel which follows
next in order below. But if the lower tunnel does not yet drain the shaft of
that meer nor supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug out
below the bottom of the higher tunnel, one-ninth part is given to the owner
of such upper tunnel. Moreover, no one tunnel deprives another of its
right to one-ninth part, unless it be a lower one, from the bottom of which
to the bottom of the one above must not be less than seven or ten fathoms, Further, of all the money
which the owner of the tunnel has spent on his tunnel while driving it
through a meer, the owner of that meer pays one-fourth part. If he does
not do so he is not allowed to make use of the drains.
Finally, with regard to whatever veins are discovered by the owner
at whose expense the tunnel is driven, the right of which has not been
already awarded to anyone, on the application of such owner the
grants him a right of a head-meer, or of a head-meer together with the next
meer. Ancient custom gives the right for a tunnel to be driven in any
direction for an unlimited length. Further, to-day he who commences a
tunnel is given, on his application, not only the right over the tunnel, but
even the head and sometimes the next meer also. In former days the owner
of the tunnel obtained only so much ground as an arrow shot from the bow
might cover, and he was allowed to pasture cattle therein. In a case where
the shafts of several meers on some vein could not be worked on account of
the great quantity of water, ancient custom also allowed the
grant the right of a large meer to anyone who would drive a tunnel. When,
however, he had driven a tunnel as far as the old shafts and had found
metal, he used to return to the
mark off the extent of his right to a meer. Thereupon, the
together with a certain number of citizens of the town—in whose place
Jurors have now succeeded—used to proceed to the mountain and mark off
with boundary stones a large meer, which consisted of seven double
measures, that is to say, it was ninety-eight fathoms long and seven wide,
which two numbers multiplied together make six hundred and eighty-six
square fathoms.
LARGE AREA.
But each of these early customs has been changed, and we now employ
the new method.
I have spoken of tunnels; I will now speak about the division of owner
ship in mines and tunnels. One owner is allowed to possess and to work
one, two, three, or more whole meers, or similarly one or more separate
tunnels, provided he conforms to the decrees of the laws relating to
metals, and to the orders of the And because he alone pro
vides the expenditure of money on the mines, if they yield metal he alone
obtains the product from them. But when large and frequent expenditures
are necessary in mining, he to whom the
company, and they each lay out a part of the expense and share with him
the profit or loss of the mine. But the title of the mines or tunnels remains
undivided, although for the purpose of dividing the expense and profit it
may be said each mine or tunnel is divided into parts
This division is made in various ways.
A mine, and the same thing
must be understood with regard to a tunnel, may be divided into two halves,
that is into two similar portions, by which method two owners spend
an equal amount on it and draw an equal profit from it, for each possesses
one half. Sometimes it is divided into four shares, by which compact
four persons can be owners, so that each possesses one-fourth, or also two
persons, so that one possesses three-fourths, and the other only one-fourth
or three owners, so that the first has two-fourths, and the second and third
one-fourth each. Sometimes it is divided into eight shares, by which plan
there may be eight owners, so that each is possessor of one-eighth; some
times there are two owners, so that one has five-sixths
twenty-fourth, and the other one-eighth; or there may be three owners, in
which one has three-quarters and the second and third each one-eighth;
or it may be divided so that one owner has seven-twelfths, together with
one twenty-fourth, a second owner has one-quarter, and a third owner has
one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half, the second one-third and one
twenty-fourth, and the third one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half,
as before, and the second and third each one-quarter; or so that the first
and second each have one-third and one twenty-fourth, and the third one
quarter; and in the same way the divisions may be adjusted in all the other
proportions. The different ways of dividing the shares originate from the
different proportions of ownership. Sometimes a mine is divided into
sixteen parts, each of which is a twenty-fourth and a forty-eighth; or it may
be divided into thirty-two parts, each of which is a forty-eighth and half a
seventy-second and a two hundred and eighty-eighth; or into sixty-four
parts of which each share is one seventy-second and one five hundred and
seventy-sixth; or finally, into one hundred and twenty-eight parts, any one
of which is half a seventy-second and half of one five hundred and seventy
sixth.
Now an iron mine either remains undivided or is divided into two,
four, or occasionally more shares, which depends on the excellence of the
veins. But a lead, bismuth, or tin mine, and likewise one of copper or even
quicksilver, is also divided into eight shares, or into sixteen or thirty-two,
and less commonly into sixty-four. The number of the divisions of the silver
mines at Freiberg in Meissen did not formerly progress beyond this; but
similarly the tunnel at Schneeberg, first of all into one hundred and twenty
eight shares, of which one hundred and twenty-six are the property of
private owners in the mines or tunnels, one belongs to the State and one
to the Church; while in Joachimsthal only one hundred and twenty-two
shares of the mines or tunnels are the property of private owners, four
are proprietary shares, and the State and Church each have one in the
same way. To these there has lately been added in some places one share
for the most needy of the population, which makes one hundred and twenty
nine shares. It is only the private owners of mines who pay contributions.
A proprietary holder, though he holds as many as four shares such as I have
described, does not pay contributions, but gratuitiously supplies the owners
of the mines with sufficient wood from his forests for timbering, machinery,
buildings, and smelting; nor do those belonging to the State, Church, and
the poor pay contributions, but the proceeds are used to build or repair
public works and sacred buildings, and to support the most needy with the
profits which they draw from the mines. Furthermore, in our State, the
one hundred and twenty-eighth share has begun to be divided into two,
four, or eight parts, or even into three, six, twelve, or smaller parts. This
is done when one mine is created out of two, for then the owner who formerly
possessed one-half becomes owner of one-fourth; he who possessed one
fourth, of one-eighth; he who possessed one-third, of one-sixth; he who
possessed one-sixth, of one-twelfth. Since our countrymen call a mine a
the owners subscribe a For, just as those who
go to a banquet (
making large profits from mining are accustomed to contribute toward the
expenditure. However, the manager of the mine assesses the contributions
of the owners annually, or for the most part quarterly, and as often he
renders an account of receipts and expenses. At Freiberg in Meissen the
old practice was for the manager to exact a contribution from the owners
every week, and every week to distribute among them the profits of the
mines, but this practice during almost the last fifteen years has been so far
changed that contribution and distribution are made four
year. Large or small contributions are imposed according to the number
of workmen which the mine or tunnel requires; as a result, those who
possess many shares provide many contributions. Four times a year the
owners contribute to the cost, and four times during the year the profits of
the mines are distributed among them; these are sometimes large, some
times small, according as there is more or less gold or silver or other metal
dug out. Indeed, from the St.
George mine in Schneeberg the miners extracted
so much silver in a quarter of a year that silver cakes, which were worth
share. From the Annaberg mine which is known as the Himmelich Höz,
they had a dole of eight hundred thaler; from a mine in Joachimsthal
which is named the Sternen, three hundred thaler; from the head mine at
Abertham, which is called St. Lorentz, two hundred and twenty-five thaler
The more shares of which any individual is owner the more profits he takes.
I will now explain how the owners may lose or obtain the right over a
mine, or a tunnel, or a share. Formerly, if anyone was able to prove by
witnesses that the owners had failed to send miners for three continuous
shifts
gave the right over it to the informer, if he desired it. But although miners
preserve this custom to-day, still mining share owners who have paid
their contributions do not lose their right over their mines against their will. Formerly, if water which had not been drawn off from the higher shaft of
some mine percolated through a vein or stringer into the shaft of another
mine and impeded their work, then the owners of the mine which suffered
the damage went to the
to the shafts two Jurors. If they found that matters were as claimed,
the right over the mine which caused the injury was given to the owners
who suffered the injury. But this custom in certain places has been changed,
for the
of two shafts, orders the owners of the shaft which causes the injury to
contribute part of the expense to the owners of the shaft which receives the
injury; if they fail to do so, he then deprives them of their right over their
mine; on the other hand, if the owners send men to the workings to dig
and draw off the water from the shafts, they keep their right over their
mine. Formerly owners used to obtain a right over any tunnel, firstly, if
in its bottom they made drains and cleansed them of mud and sand so that
the water might flow out without any hindrance, and restored those drains
which had been damaged; secondly, if they provided shafts or openings to
supply the miners with air, and restored those which had fallen in; and
finally, if three miners were employed continuously in driving the tunnel. But the principal reason for losing the title to a tunnel was that for a period
of eight days no miner was employed upon it; therefore, when anyone
was able to prove by witnesses that the owners of a tunnel had not done
these things, he brought his accusation before the
going out from the town to the tunnel and inspecting the drains and the
ventilating machines and everything else, and finding the charge to be true,
placed the witness under oath, and asked him: “Whose tunnel is this at the
present time?” The witness would reply: “The King's” or “The
the first applicant. This was the severe rule under which the owners at one
time lost their rights over a tunnel; but its severity is now considerably
mitigated, for the owners do not now forthwith lose their right over a tunnel
through not having cleaned out the drains and restored the shafts or
ventilation holes which have suffered damage; but the
the tunnel manager to do it, and if he does not obey, the authorities fine
the tunnel. Also it is sufficient for one miner to be engaged in driving the
tunnel. Moreover, if the owner of a tunnel sets boundaries at a fixed spot
in the rocks and stops driving the tunnel, he may obtain a right over it so
far as he has gone, provided the drains are cleaned out and ventilation
holes are kept in repair. But any other owner is allowed to start from the
established mark and drive the tunnel further, if he pays the former owners
of the tunnel as much money every three months as the
ought to be paid.
There remain for discussion, the shares in the mines and tunnels.
Formerly if anybody conveyed these shares to anyone else, and the latter
had once paid his contribution, the seller
and this custom to-day has the force of law. But if the seller denied that the
contribution had been paid, while the buyer of the shares declared that he could
prove by witnesses that he had paid his contribution to the other proprietors,
and a case arose for trial, then the evidence of the other proprietors carried
more weight than the oath of the seller. To-day the buyer of the shares proves
that he has paid his contribution by a document which the mine or tunnel
manager always gives each one; if the buyer has contributed no money
there is no obligation on the seller to keep his bargain. Formerly, as I have
said above, the proprietors used to contribute money weekly, but now con
tributions are paid four times each year. To-day, if for the space of a month
anyone does not take proceedings against the seller of the shares for the con
tribution, the right of taking proceedings is lost. But when the Clerk has
already entered on the register the shares which had been conveyed or
bought, none of the owners loses his right over the share unless the money
is not contributed which the manager of the mine or tunnel has demanded
from the owner or his agent. Formerly, if on the application of the manager
the owner or his agent did not pay, the matter was referred to the
meister,
if he failed to contribute for three successive weeks, the
the right to his shares to the first applicant. To-day this custom is un
changed, for if owners fail for the space of a month to pay the contribu
tions which the manager of the mine has imposed on them, on a stated day
their names are proclaimed aloud and struck off the list of owners, in
the presence of the
Clerk, and each of such shares is entered on the proscribed list. If, how
to the manager of the mine or tunnel, and pay the money which is due from
them to the Share Clerk, he removes their shares from the proscribed
list. They are not thereupon restored to their former position unless the
other owners consent; in which respect the custom now in use differs from
the old practice, for to-day if the owners of shares constituting anything
over half the mine consent to the restoration of those who have been
proscribed, the others are obliged to consent whether they wish to or not. Formerly, unless such restoration had been sanctioned by the approval of
the owners of one hundred shares, those who had been proscribed were not
restored to their former position.
The procedure in suits relating to shares was formerly as follows: he
who instituted a suit and took legal proceedings against another in respect
of the shares, used to make a formal charge against the accused possessor
before the This was done either at his house or in some public
place or at the mines, once each day for three days if the shares belonged to
an old mine, and three times in eight days if they belonged to a head
meer. But if he could not find the possessor of the shares in these places, it
was valid and effectual to make the accusation against him at the house of
the When, however, he made the charge for the third time, he
used to bring with him a notary, whom the
“Have I earned the fee?” and who would respond: “You have earned
it”; thereupon the
who made the accusation, and the accuser in turn would pay down the
customary fee to the After these proceedings, if the man whom
the
proprietors of the mine or of the head-mine was sent to him to acquaint him
with the facts, but if he dwelt elsewhere proclamation was made in some
public place, or at the mine, openly and in a loud voice in the hearing of
numbers of miners. Nowadays a date is defined for the one who is answer
able for the debt of shares or money, and information is given the accused
by an official if he is near at hand, or if he is absent, a letter is sent him;
nor is the right over his shares taken from anyone for the space of one and
a half months. So much for these matters.
Now, before I deal with the methods which must be employed in
working, I will speak of the duties of the Mining Prefect, the
the Jurors, the Mining Clerk, the Share Clerk, the manager of the mine
or tunnel, the foreman of the mine or tunnel, and the workmen.
To the Mining Prefect, whom the King or Prince appoints as his deputy,
all men of all races, ages, and rank, give obedience and submission. He
governs and regulates everything at his discretion, ordering those things
which are useful and advantageous in mining operations, and prohibiting
those which are to the contrary. He levies penalties and punishes offenders;
he arranges disputes which the
even he cannot arrange them, he allows the owners who are at variance over
some point to proceed to litigation; he even lays down the law, gives orders
mines the pay of persons who hold any post or office. He is present in
person when the mine managers present their quarterly accounts of profits
and expenses, and generally represents the King or Prince and upholds his
dignity. The Athenians in this way set Thucydides, the famous historian,
over the mines of Thasos
Next in power to the Mining Prefect comes the
has jurisdiction over all who are connected with mines, with a few exceptions,
which are the Tithe Gatherer, the Cashier, the Silver Refiner, the Master
of the Mint, and the Coiners themselves. Fraudulent, negligent, or dissolute
men he either throws into prison, or deprives of promotion, or fines;
of these fines, part is given as a tribute to those in power. When the mine
owners have a dispute over boundaries he arbitrates it; or if he cannot
settle the dispute, he pronounces judgment jointly with the Jurors;
from them, however, an appeal lies to the Mining Prefect. He transcribes
his decrees in a book and sets up the records in public. It is also his duty
to grant the right over the mines to those who apply, and to confirm their
rights; he also must measure the mines, and fix their boundaries, and see
that the mine workings are not allowed to become dangerous. Some of
these duties he observes on fixed days; for on Wednesday in the presence
of the Jurors he confirms the rights over the mines which he has granted,
settles disputes about boundaries, and pronounces judgments. On Mondays,
Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, he rides up to the mines, and dismounting
at some of them explains what is required to be done, or considers the
boundaries which are under controversy. On Saturday all the mine managers
and mine foremen render an account of the money which they have spent
on the mines during the preceding week, and the Mining Clerk transcribes
this account into the register of expenses. Formerly, for one Principality
there was one
jurisdiction and control over them; for every mine had its own judge,
just as to-day each locality has a
being changed. To this ancient
Meissen, disputes were referred; hence right up to the present time the one
at Freiberg still has the power of pronouncing judgment when mine owners
who are engaged in disputes among themselves appeal to him. The old
whatsoever; whereas the judge could only try the things which were done
in his own district, in the same way that every modern
To each
signifying to the applicant for a right over a mine, the day and hour on which
the right is granted, the name of the applicant, and the location of the mine. He also affixes at the entrance to the mine, quarterly, at the appointed time,
a sheet of paper on which is shown how much contribution must be paid to
the manager of the mine. These notices are prepared jointly with the
of the separate mines.
I now come to the Jurors, who are men experienced in mining
matters and of good repute. Their number is greater or less as there
are few or more mines; thus if there are ten mines there will be five
pairs of Jurors, like a Into however many
divisions the total number of mines has been divided, so many divisions
has the body of Jurors; each pair of Jurors usually visits some of
the mines whose administration is under their supervision on every
day that workmen are employed; it is usually so arranged that they
visit all the mines in the space of fourteen days. They inspect and con
sider all details, and deliberate and consult with the mine foreman on
matters relating to the underground workings, machinery, timbering, and
everything else. They also jointly with the mine foreman from time to
time make the price per fathom to the workmen for mining the ore, fixing
it at a high or low price, according to whether the rock is hard or soft; if,
however, the contractors find that an unforeseen and unexpected hardness
occurs, and for that reason have difficulty and delay in carrying out their
work, the Jurors allow them something in excess of the price fixed;
while if there is a softness by reason of water, and the work is done more
easily and quickly, they deduct something from the price. Further, if the
Jurors discover manifest negligence or fraud on the part of any foreman
or workman, they first admonish or reprimand him as to his duties and
obligations, and if he does not become more diligent and improve, the matter
is reported to the
persons of their functions and office, or, if they have committed a crime,
throws them into prison. Lastly, because the Jurors have been given
to the
confirm the right over any mine, nor measure the mines, nor fix their
boundaries, nor settle disputes about boundaries, nor pronounce judgment,
nor, finally, does he without them listen to any account of profits and
expenditure.
Now the Mining Clerk enters each mine in his books, the new mines
in one book, the old mines which have been re-opened in another. This
is done in the following way: first is written the name of the man who has
applied for the right over the mine, then the day and hour on which he
made his application, then the vein and the locality in which it is situated,
next the conditions on which the right has been given, and lastly, the day on
which the A document containing all these
particulars is also given to the person whose right over a mine has been
confirmed. The Mining Clerk also sets down in another book the names
of the owners of each mine over which the right has been confirmed;
in another any intermission of work permitted to any person for cer
supplies to another for drawing off water or making machinery; and in
another the decisions of the
settled by them as honorary arbitrators. All these matters he enters in the
books on Wednesday of every week; if holidays fall on that day he does it
on the following Thursday. Every Saturday he enters in another book the
total expenses of the preceding week, the account of which the mine manager
has rendered; but the total quarterly expenses of each mine manager, he
enters in a special book at his own convenience. He enters similarly in
another book a list of owners who have been proscribed. Lastly, that no one
may be able to bring a charge of falsification against him, all these books
are enclosed in a chest with two locks, the key of one of which is kept by the
Mining Clerk, and of the other by the
The Share Clerk enters in a book the owners of each mine whom
the first finder of the vein names to him, and from time to time replaces the
names of the sellers with those of the buyers of the shares. It sometimes
happens that twenty or more owners come into the possession of some
particular share. Unless, however, the seller is present, or has sent a letter
to the Mining Clerk with his seal, or better still with the seal of the Mayor
of the town where he dwells, his name is not replaced by that of anyone else;
for if the Share Clerk is not sufficiently cautious, the law requires him
to restore the late owner wholly to his former position. He writes out a
fresh document, and in this way gives proof of possession. Four times a
year, when the accounts of the quarterly expenditure are rendered, he
names the new proprietors to the manager of each mine, that the manager
may know from whom he should demand contributions and among whom
to distribute the profits of the mines. For this work the mine manager pays
the Clerk a fixed fee.
I will now speak of the duties of the mine manager.
In the case of the
owners of every mine which is not yielding metal, the manager announces
to the proprietors their contributions in a document which is affixed to the
doors of the town hall, such contributions being large or small, according as
the If anyone fails to pay these
contributions for the space of a month, the manager removes their names
from the list of owners, and makes their shares the common property of the
other proprietors. And so, whomsoever the mine manager names as not
having paid his contribution, that same man the Mining Clerk designates
in writing, and so also does the Share Clerk. Of the contribution, the
mine manager applies part to the payment of the foreman and workmen,
and lays by a part to purchase at the lowest price the necessary things for
the mine, such as iron tools, nails, firewood, planks, buckets, drawing-ropes,
or grease. But in the case of a mine which is yielding metal, the Tithe
gatherer pays the mine manager week by week as much money as suffices
to discharge the workmen's wages and to provide the necessary implements
for mining. The mine manager of each mine also, in the presence of its
foreman, on Saturday in each week renders an account of his expenses to
whether the money has been contributed by the owners or taken from the
Tithe-gatherer; and of his quarterly expenditure in the same way
to them and to the Mining Prefect and to the Mining Clerk, four
times a year at the appointed time; for just as there are four seasons
of the year, namely, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, so there are
fourfold accounts of profits and expenses. In the beginning of the first
month of each quarter an account is rendered of the money which the
manager has spent on the mine during the previous quarter, then of the
profit which he has taken from it during the same period; for example,
the account which is rendered at the beginning of spring is an account of all
the profits and expenses of each separate week of winter, which have been
entered by the Mining Clerk in the book of accounts. If the manager
has spent the money of the proprietors advantageously in the mine and
has faithfully looked after it, everyone praises him as a diligent and honest
man; if through ignorance in these matters he has caused loss, he is generally
deprived of his office; if by his carelessness and negligence the owners have
suffered loss, the
if he has been guilty of fraud or theft, he is punished with fine, prison, or
death. Further, it is the business of the manager to see that the foreman
of the mine is present at the beginning and end of the shifts, that he digs
the ore in an advantageous manner, and makes the required timbering,
machines, and drains. The manager also makes the deductions from the
pay of the workmen whom the foreman has noted as negligent. Next,
if the mine is rich in metal, the manager must see that its ore-house is closed
on those days on which no work is performed; and if it is a rich vein of gold
or silver, he sees that the miners promptly transfer the output from the shaft
or tunnel into a chest or into the strong room next to the house where the
foreman dwells, that no opportunity for theft may be given to dishonest
persons. This duty he shares in common with the foreman, but the one
which follows is peculiarly his own. When ore is smelted he is present in
person, and watches that the smelting is performed carefully and advan
tageously. If from it gold or silver is melted out, when it is melted in the
cupellation furnace he enters the weight of it in his books and carries it
to the Tithe-gatherer, who similarly writes a note of its weight in his books;
it is then conveyed to the refiner. When it has been brought back, both
the Tithe-gatherer and manager again enter its weight in their books. Why
again? Because he looks after the goods of the owners just as if they were
his own. Now the laws which relate to mining permit a manager to have
charge of more than one mine, but in the case of mines yielding gold or
silver, to have charge of only two. If, however, several mines following the
head-mine begin to produce metal, he remains in charge of these others until
he is freed from the duty of looking after them by the Last of
all, the manager, the
with the owners, settle the remuneration for the labourers. Enough of the
duties and occupation of the manager.
I will now leave the manager, and discuss him who controls the workmen
of the mine, who is therefore called the foreman, although some call him
the watchman. It is he who distributes the work among the labourers, and
sees diligently that each faithfully and usefully performs his duties. He
also discharges workmen on account of incompetence, or negligence, and
supplies others in their places if the two Jurors and manager give their
consent. He must be skilful in working wood, that he may timber shafts,
place posts, and make underground structures capable of supporting an under
mined mountain, lest the rocks from the hangingwall of the veins, not being
supported, become detached from the mass of the mountain and over
whelm the workmen with destruction. He must be able to make and lay
out the drains in the tunnels, into which the water from the veins, stringers,
and seams in the rocks may collect, that it may be properly guided and
can flow away. Further, he must be able to recognize veins and stringers,
so as to sink shafts to the best advantage, and must be able to discern one
kind of material which is mined from another, or to train his subordinates
that they may separate the materials correctly. He must also be well
acquainted with all methods of washing, so as to teach the washers how
the metalliferous earth or sand is washed. He supplies the miners with iron
tools when they are about to start to work in the mines, and apportions a
certain weight of oil for their lamps, and trains them to dig to the best
advantage, and sees that they work faithfully. When their shift is finished,
he takes back the oil which has been left. On account of his numerous and
important duties and labours, only one mine is entrusted to one foreman,
nay, rather sometimes two or three foremen are set over one mine.
Since I have mentioned the shifts, I will briefly explain how these are
carried on. The twenty-four hours of a day and night are divided into three
shifts, and each shift consists of seven hours. The three remaining hours are
intermediate between the shifts, and form an interval during which the
workmen enter and leave the mines. The first shift begins at the fourth hour
in the morning and lasts till the eleventh hour; the second begins at the
twelfth and is finished at the seventh; these two are day shifts in the
morning and afternoon. The third is the night shift, and commences at the
eighth hour in the evening and finishes at the third in the morning. The
unless necessity demands it. In that case, whether they draw water from
the shafts or mine the ore, they keep their vigil by the night lamps, and to
prevent themselves falling asleep from the late hours or from fatigue, they
lighten their long and arduous labours by singing, which is neither wholly
untrained nor unpleasing. In some places one miner is not allowed to
undertake two shifts in succession, because it often happens that he either
falls asleep in the mine, overcome by exhaustion from too much labour, or
arrives too late for his shift, or leaves sooner than he ought. Elsewhere he
is allowed to do so, because he cannot subsist on the pay of one shift,
especially if provisions grow dearer. The
forbid an extraordinary shift when he concedes only one ordinary shift.
call a “campana,” gives the workmen warning, and when this is heard they
run hither and thither through the streets toward the mines. Similarly,
the same sound of the bell warns the foreman that a shift has just been
finished; therefore as soon as he hears it, he stamps on the woodwork of the
shaft and signals the workmen to come out. Thereupon, the nearest as soon
as they hear the signal, strike the rocks with their hammers, and the sound
reaches those who are furthest away. Moreover, the lamps show that the
shift has come to an end when the oil becomes almost consumed and fails
them. The labourers do not work on Saturdays, but buy those things which
are necessary to life, nor do they usually work on Sundays or annual
festivals, but on these occasions devote the shift to holy things. However,
the workmen do not rest and do nothing if necessity demands their labour;
for sometimes a rush of water compels them to work, sometimes an impending
fall, sometimes something else, and at such times it is not considered
irreligious to work on holidays. Moreover, all workmen of this class are
strong and used to toil from birth.
The chief kinds of workmen are miners, shovelers, windlass men, carriers,
sorters, washers, and smelters, as to whose duties I will speak in the fol
lowing books, in their proper place. At present it is enough to add this one
fact, that if the workmen have been reported by the foreman for negligence,
the
dismisses them from their work on Saturday, or deprives them of part of
their pay; or if for fraud, throws them into prison. However, the owners
of works in which the metals are smelted, and the master of the smelter, look
after their own men. As to the government and duties of miners, I have
now said enough; I will explain them more fully in another work entitled
END OF BOOK IV.
In the last book I have explained the methods of
delimiting the meers along each kind of vein, and
the duties of mine officials. In this book
in like manner explain the principles of under
ground mining and the art of surveying. First
then, I will proceed to deal with those matters
which pertain to the former heading, since both the
subject and methodical arrangement require it. And so I will describe first of all the digging of
shafts, tunnels, and drifts on
indications shown by
the rocks; then I will speak of the tools by which veins and rocks are broken
down and excavated; the method by which fire shatters the hard veins;
and further, of the machines with which water is drawn from the shafts
and air is forced into deep shafts and long tunnels, for digging is impeded
by the inrush of the former or the failure of the latter; next I will deal
with the two kinds of shafts, and with the making of them and of tunnels;
and finally, I will describe the method of mining
latae,
Now when a miner discovers a
and above it sets up a windlass, and builds a shed over the shaft to prevent
the rain from falling in, lest the men who turn the windlass be numbed
by the cold or troubled by the rain. The windlass men also place their
barrows in it, and the miners store their iron tools and other implements therein. Next to the shaft-house another house is built, where the mine foreman and the
other workmen dwell, and in which are stored the ore and other things which
are dug out. Although some persons build only one house, yet because
sometimes boys and other living things fall into the shafts, most miners
deliberately place one house apart from the other, or at least separate them
by a wall.
Now a shaft is dug, usually two fathoms long, two-thirds of a fathom
wide, and thirteen fathoms deep; but for the purpose of connecting with a
tunnel which has already been driven in a hill, a shaft may be sunk to a
depth of only eight fathoms, at other times to fourteen, more or lessA
shaft may be made vertical or inclined, according as the vein which the
miners follow in the course of digging is vertical or inclined. A tunnel is a
subterranean ditch driven lengthwise, and is nearly twice as high as it is
broad, and wide enough that workmen and others may be able to pass and
carry their loads. It is usually one and a quarter fathoms high, while
its width is about three and three-quarters feet. Usually two workmen are
required to drive it, one of whom digs out the upper and the other the lower
part, and the one goes forward, while the other follows closely after. Each
sits upon small boards fixed securely from the footwall to the hangingwall,
or if the vein is a soft one, sometimes on a wedge-shaped plank fixed on to the
vein itself. Miners sink more inclined shafts than vertical, and some of each
kind do not reach to tunnels, while some connect with them. But as for
some shafts, though they have already been sunk to the required depth,
the tunnel which is to pierce the mountain may not yet have been driven
far enough to connect with them.
It is advantageous if a shaft connects with a tunnel, for then the miners
and other workmen carry on more easily the work they have undertaken;
but if the shaft is not so deep, it is usual to drift from one or both sides of it. From these openings the owner or foreman becomes acquainted with the
veins and stringers that unite with the principal vein, or cut across it, or
THREE VERTICAL SHAFTS, OF WHICH THE FIRST, A, DOES NOT REACH THE TUNNEL; THE
SECOND, B, REACHES THE TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN
DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.
along after the manner of a tunnel, they are entirely hidden within the
THREE INCLINED SHAFTS, OF WHICH A DOES NOT YET REACH THE TUNNEL; B REACHES THE
TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.This kind of an opening, however, differs from a tunnel in that it
is dark throughout its length. whereas a tunnel has a mouth open to daylight.
A—SHAFT. B, C—DRIFT. D—ANOTHER SHAFT. E—TUNNEL. F—MOUTH OF TUNNEL.
I have spoken of shafts, tunnels, and drifts.
I will now speak of the
indications given by the
the rocks. These indications, as also many others which I will explain, are
to a great extent identical in
profundae.
When a stringer junctions with a main vein and causes a swelling, a
shaft should be sunk at the junction. But when we find the stringer inter
secting the main vein crosswise or obliquely, if it descends vertically down
to the depths of the earth, a second shaft should be sunk to the point where
the stringer cuts the main vein; but if the stringer cuts it obliquely the
shaft should be two or three fathoms back, in order that the junction may
be pierced lower down. At such junctions lies the best hope of finding the
ore for the sake of which we explore the ground, and if ore has already been
found, it is usually found in much greater abundance at that spot. Again,
if several stringers descend into the earth, the miner, in order to pierce
through the point of contact, should sink the shaft in the midst of these
stringers, or else calculate on the most prominent one.
Since an inclined vein often lies near a vertical vein, it is advisable
to sink a shaft at the spot where a stringer or cross-vein cuts them both;
or where a
are usually found there. In the same way we have a good prospect of finding
metal at the point where an inclined vein joins a vertical one; this is why
miners cross-cut the hangingwall or footwall of a main vein, and in these
openings seek for a vein which may junction with the principal vein a few
fathoms below. Nay, further, these same miners, if no stringer or cross
vein intersects the main vein so that they can follow it in their workings,
even cross-cut through the solid rock of the hangingwall or footwall. These
cross-cuts are likewise called “
opening which has to be undertaken is made from a tunnel or from a drift. Miners have some hope when only a cross vein cuts a main vein.
Further,
if a vein which cuts the main vein obliquely does not appear anywhere
beyond it, it is advisable to dig into that side of the main vein toward which
the oblique vein inclines, whether the right or left side, that we may ascer
tain if the main vein has absorbed it; if after cross-cutting six fathoms it
is not found, it is advisable to dig on the other side of the main vein, that
we may know for certain whether it has carried it forward. The owners
of a main vein can often dig no less profitably on that side where the vein
which cuts the main vein again appears, than where it first cuts it; the
owners of the intersecting vein, when that is found again, recover their title,
which had in a measure been lost.
The common miners look favourably upon the stringers which come
from the north and join the main vein; on the other hand, they look
unfavourably upon those which come from the south, and say that these do
much harm to the main vein, while the former improve it. But I think
that miners should not neglect either of them: as I showed in Book III,
experience does not confirm those who hold this opinion about veins, so now
common miners which have proved good, but I know this could be of little
or no benefit to posterity.
If the miners find no stringers or veins in the hangingwall or footwall of
the main vein, and if they do not find much ore, it is not worth while to
undertake the labour of sinking another shaft. Nor ought a shaft to be sunk
where a vein is divided into two or three parts, unless the indications are
satisfactory that those parts may be united and joined together a little later. Further, it is a bad indication for a vein rich in mineral to bend and turn
hither and thither, for unless it goes down again into the ground vertically or
inclined, as it first began, it produces no more metal; and even though it
does go down again, it often continues barren. Stringers which in their
outcrops bear metals, often disappoint miners, no metal being found in depth. Further, inverted seams in the rocks are counted among the bad indications.
The miners hew out the whole of solid veins when they show clear evidence
of being of good quality; similarly they hew out the drusy
especially if the cavities are plainly seen to have formerly borne metal, or
if the cavities are few and small. They do not dig barren veins through
which water flows, if there are no metallic particles showing; occasionally,
however, they dig even barren veins which are free from water, because
of the pyrites which is devoid of all metal, or because of a fine black soft
substance which is like wool. They dig stringers which are rich in metal,
or sometimes, for the purpose of searching for the vein, those that are devoid
of ore which lie near the hangingwall or footwall of the main vein. This
then, generally speaking, is the mode of dealing with stringers and veins.
Let us now consider the metallic material which is found in the
of
either cohesive and continuous, or scattered and dispersed among them,
or swelling out in bellying shapes, or found in veins or stringers which
originate from the main vein and ramify like branches; but these latter veins
and stringers are very short, for after a little space they do not appear again. If we come across a small quantity of metallic material it is an indication;
but if a large quantity, it is not an “indication,” but the very thing for
which we explore the earth. As soon as a miner who searches for veins
discovers pure metal or minerals, or rich metallic material, or a great
abundance of material which is poor in metal, let him sink a shaft on the
spot without any delay. If the material appears more abundant or of better
quality on the one side, he will incline his digging in that direction.
Gold, silver, copper, and quicksilver are often found native
often iron and bismuth; almost never tin and lead. Nevertheless tin-stone
is not far removed from the pure white tin which is melted out of them, and
galena, from which lead is obtained, differs little from that metal itself.
Now we may classify gold ores.
Next after native gold, we come to the
gold colour. These must be reckoned as the richest ores, because the gold
exceeds the stone or earth in weight. Next come all gold ores of which each.
one hundred
a small proportion of gold is found in the earth or stone, yet it equals in value
other metals of greater weight.A vein which contains a
larger proportion of silver than of gold is rarely found to be a rich one. Earth, whether it be dry or wet, rarely abounds in gold; but in dry earth
there is more often found a greater quantity of gold, especially if it has the
scales resembling mica. The solidified juices, azure, chrysocolla, orpiment,
and realgar, also frequently contain gold. Likewise native or
found sometimes in large, and sometimes in small quantities in quartz,
degree, and which is sometimes so porous that it seems completely decom
posed. Lastly, gold is found in pyrites, though rarely in large quantities.
When considering silver ores other than native silver, those ores are
This quality comprises
ruby silver, or whether white, or black, or grey, or purple, or yellow, or liver-Sometimes quartz, schist, or marble is of this quality
also, if much native or But that ore is considered
of poor quality if three
one hundred
is mixed with all kinds of earth and stone compounds, except the various
kinds of
As regards other kinds of metal, although some rich ores are found,
still, unless the veins contain a large quantity of ore, it is very rarely worth
while to dig them. The Indians and some other races do search for gems in
veins hidden deep in the earth, but more often they are noticed from their
clearness, or rather their brilliancy, when metals are mined. When they
outcrop, we follow veins of marble by mining in the same way as is
done with rock or building-stones when we come upon them. But
gems, properly so called, though they sometimes have veins of their own,
are still for the most part found in mines and rock quarries, as the
lodestone in iron mines, the emery in silver mines, the
trochítes,
of the owners, usually collect them from the seams in the rocks.
miner neglect the digging of “extraordinary earths,”
if they are found in stone quarries, or in their own veins; their value is usually
indicated by their taste. Nor, lastly, does the miner fail to give attention to
the solidified juices which are found in metallic veins, as well as in their own
veins, from which he collects and gathers them. But I will say no more
on these matters, because I have explained more fully all the metals and
mineral substances in the books “
But I will return to the indications.
If we come upon earth which is
like lute, in which there are particles of any sort of metal, native or
the best possible indication of a vein is given to miners, for the metallic
material from which the particles have become detached is necessarily close
by. But if this kind of earth is found absolutely devoid of all metallic
material, but fatty, and of white, green, blue, and similar colours, they must
not abandon the work that has been started. Miners have other indications in
the veins and stringers, which I have described already, and in the rocks, about
which I will speak a little later. If the miner comes across other dry earths
which contain native or
across yellow, red, black, or some other “extraordinary” earth, though it is
devoid of mineral, it is not a bad indication. Chrysocolla, or azure, or verdigris,
or orpiment, or realgar, when they are found, are counted among the good
indications. Further, where underground springs throw up metal we ought
to continue the digging we have begun, for this points to the particles having
been detached from the main mass like a fragment from a body. In the
same way the thin scales of any metal adhering to stone or rock are counted
among the good indications. Next, if the veins which are composed partly
of quartz, partly of clayey or dry earth, descend one and all into the depths
of the earth together, with their stringers, there is good hope of metal being
found; but if the stringers afterward do not appear, or little metallic
material is met with, the digging should not be given up until there is nothing
remaining. Dark or black or horn or liver-coloured quartz is usually a good
sign; white is sometimes good, sometimes no sign at all. But calc-spar,
showing itself in a
good indication; for it did not belong to the vein proper, but to some stringer. Those kinds of stone which easily melt in fire, especially if they are translucent
(fluorspar?), must be counted among the medium indications, for if other
good indications are present they are good, but if no good indications are
present, they give no useful significance. In the same way we ought to form
our judgment with regard to gems. Veins which at the hangingwall and
footwall have horn-coloured quartz or marble, but in the middle clayey
earth, give some hope; likewise those give hope in which the hangingwall
or footwall shows iron-rust coloured earth, and in the middle greasy and
sticky earth; also there is hope for those which have at the hanging or footwall
that kind of earth which we call “soldiers' earth,” and in the middle black
earth or earth which looks as if burnt. The special indication of gold is
orpiment; of silver is bismuth and
sory, chalcitis, misy,
of iron, iron rust. Gold and copper are equally indicated by chrysocolla and
azure; silver and lead, by the lead. But, though miners rightly
call bismuth “the roof of silver,” and though copper pyrites is the common
parent of vitriol and
peculiar minerals, just as have orpiment and
Now, just as certain vein materials give miners a favourable indication,
so also do the rocks through which the
way, for sand discovered in a mine is reckoned among the good indications,
especially if it is very fine. In the same way schist, when it is of a
bluish or blackish colour, and also limestone, of whatever colour it may be, is
a good sign for a silver vein. There is a rock of another kind that is a good sign;
in it are scattered tiny black stones from which tin is smelted; especially when
the whole space between the veins is composed of this kind of rock. Very often indeed, this good kind of rock in conjunction with valuable
stringers contains within its folds the
it descends vertically into the earth, the benefit belongs to that mine in
which it is seen first of all; if inclined, it benefits the other neighbouring
minesAs a result the miner who is not ignorant of geometry can calculate
from the other mines the depth at which the
metal will wind its way through the rock into his mine. So much for these
matters.
I now come to the mode of working, which is varied and complex, for in
some places they dig crumbling ore, in others hard ore, in others a harder
ore, and in others the hardest kind of ore. In the same way, in some places
the hangingwall rock is soft and fragile, in others hard, in others harder, and
in still others of the hardest sort. I call that ore “crumbling” which is com
posed of earth, and of soft solidified juices; that ore “hard” which is composed
of metallic minerals and moderately hard stones, such as for the most part
are those which easily melt in a fire of the first and second orders, like lead
and similar materials. I call that ore “harder” when with those I have already
mentioned are combined various sorts of quartz, or stones which easily melt
in fire of the third degree, or pyrites, or I call
that ore hardest, which is composed throughout the whole vein of these hard
stones and compounds. The hanging or footwalls of a vein are hard, when
composed of rock in which there are few stringers or seams; harder, in
which they are fewer; hardest, in which they are fewest or none at all. When these are absent, the rock is quite devoid of water which softens
it. But the hardest rock of the hanging or footwall, however, is seldom as
hard as the harder class of ore.
Miners dig out crumbling ore with the pick alone.
When the metal
has not yet shown itself, they do not discriminate between the hangingwall
and the veins; when it has once been found, they work with the utmost care. For first of all they tear away the hangingwall rock separately from the vein,
afterward with a pick they dislodge the crumbling vein from the footwall
the ground. They break a hard vein loose from the footwall by blows with
a hammer upon the first kind of iron tool
appropriate names, and with the same tools they hew away the hard hanging
wall rock. They hew out the hangingwall rock in advance more frequently, the
rock of the footwall more rarely; and indeed, when the rock of the footwall
resists iron tools, the rock of the hangingwall certainly cannot be broken unless
it is allowable to shatter it by fire. With regard to the harder veins which are
tractable to iron tools, and likewise with regard to the harder and hardest
kind of hangingwall rock, they generally attack them with more powerful
iron tools, in fact, with the fourth kind of iron tool, which are called by their
appropriate names; but if these are not ready to hand, they use two or
three iron tools of the first kind together. As for the hardest kind of metal
bearing vein, which in a measure resists iron tools, if the owners of the
neighbouring mines give them permission, they break it with fires. But if
these owners refuse them permission, then first of all they hew out the rock of
the hangingwall, or of the footwall if it be less hard; then they place timbers
set in hitches in the hanging or footwall, a little above the vein, and from
the front and upper part, where the vein is seen to be seamed with small
cracks, they drive into one of the little cracks one of the iron tools which
I have mentioned; then in each fracture they place four thin iron
blocks, and in order to hold them more firmly, if necessary, they place
as many thin iron plates back to back; next they place thinner iron
plates between each two iron blocks, and strike and drive them by
turns with hammers, whereby the vein rings with a shrill sound; and the
moment when it begins to be detached from the hangingwall or footwall
rock, a tearing sound is heard. As soon as this grows distinct the miners
hastily flee away; then a great crash is heard as the vein is broken and torn,
and falls down. By this method they throw down a portion of a vein weigh
ing a hundred pounds more or less. But if the miners by any other method
hew the hardest kind of vein which is rich in metal, there remain certain
cone-shaped portions which can be cut out afterward only with difficulty. As
for this knob of hard ore, if it is devoid of metal, or if they are not allowed to
apply fire to it, they proceed round it by digging to the right or left, because
it cannot be broken into by iron wedges without great expense. Meantime,
while the workmen are carrying out the task they have undertaken, the
depths of the earth often resound with sweet singing, whereby they lighten a
toil which is of the severest kind and full of the greatest dangers.
As I have just said, fire shatters the hardest rocks, but the method of its
application is not simpleFor if a vein held in the rocks cannot be hewn
low, a heap of dried logs is placed against the rock and fired; if the drift or
tunnel is high, two heaps are necessary, of which one is placed above the
other, and both burn until the fire has consumed them. This force does not
generally soften a large portion of the vein, but only some of the surface. When the rock in the hanging or footwall can be worked by the iron tools
and the vein is so hard that it is not tractable to the same tools, then the
walls are hollowed out; if this be in the end of the drift or tunnel or above
or below, the vein is then broken by fire, but not by the same method; for
if the hollow is wide, as many logs are piled into it as possible, but if narrow,
only a few. By the one method the greater fire separates the vein more
completely from the footwall or sometimes from the hangingwall, and by the
other, the smaller fire breaks away less of the vein from the rock, because in
that case the fire is confined and kept in check by portions of the rock which
surround the wood held in such a narrow excavation. Further, if the
excavation is low, only one pile of logs is placed in it, if high, there are
two, one placed above the other, by which plan the lower bundle being
kindled sets alight the upper one; and the fire being driven by the draught
into the vein, separates it from the rock which, however hard it may be, often
becomes so softened as to be the most easily breakable of all. Applying this
principle, Hannibal, the Carthaginian General, imitating the Spanish miners, Even
if a vein is a very wide one, as tin veins usually are, miners excavate into the
small streaks, and into those hollows they put dry wood and place amongst
them at frequent intervals sticks, all sides of which are shaved down fan
shaped, which easily take light, and when once they have taken fire com
municate it to the other bundles of wood, which easily ignite.
A—KINDLED LOGS. B—STICKS SHAVED DOWN FAN-SHAPED. C—TUNNEL.
While the heated veins and rock are giving forth a foetid vapour and the
shafts or tunnels are emitting fumes, the miners and other workmen do not
go down in the mines lest the stench affect their health or actually kill them,
as I will explain in greater detail when I come to speak of the evils which
affect miners. The
suffocated, gives no one permission to break veins or rock by fire in shafts or
tunnels where it is possible for the poisonous vapour and smoke to permeate
the veins or stringers and pass through into the neighbouring mines, which
have no hard veins or rock. As for that part of a vein or the surface of the
rock which the fire has separated from the remaining mass, if it is overhead,
the miners dislodge it with a crowbar, or if it still has some degree of hardness,
they thrust a smaller crowbar into the cracks and so break it down, but if Thus broken off, the rock
tumbles down; or if it still remains, they break it off with picks. Rock
and earth on the one hand, and metal and ore on the other, are filled into
buckets separately and drawn up to the open air or to the nearest tunnel. If the shaft is not deep, the buckets are drawn up by a machine turned by
men; if it is deep, they are drawn by machines turned by horses.
It often happens that a rush of water or sometimes stagnant air hinders
the mining; for this reason miners pay the greatest attention to these
matters, just as much as to digging, or they should do so. The water of the
veins and stringers and especially of vacant workings, must be drained out
through the shafts and tunnels. Air, indeed, becomes stagnant both in
tunnels and in shafts; in a deep shaft, if it be by itself, this occurs if it is
neither reached by a tunnel nor connected by a drift with another shaft;
this occurs in a tunnel if it has been driven too far into a mountain and no
shaft has yet been sunk deep enough to meet it; in neither case can the
air move or circulate. For this reason the vapours become heavy and
resemble mist, and they smell of mouldiness, like a vault or some under
ground chamber which has been completely closed for many years. This
suffices to prevent miners from continuing their work for long in these places,
even if the mine is full of silver or gold, or if they do continue, they cannot
breathe freely and they have headaches; this more often happens if they
work in these places in great numbers, and bring many lamps, which then
supply them with a feeble light, because the foul air from both lamps and
men make the vapours still more heavy.
A small quantity of water is drawn from the shafts by machines of
different kinds which men turn or work. If so great a quantity has flowed
into one shaft as greatly to impede mining, another shaft is sunk some
fathoms distant from the first, and thus in one of them work and labour are
carried on without hindrance, and the water is drained into the other, which
is sunk lower than the level of the water in the first one; then by these
machines or by those worked by horses, the water is drawn up into the drain
and flows out of the shaft-house or the mouth of the nearest tunnel. But
when into the shaft of one mine, which is sunk more deeply, there flows all
the water of all the neighbouring mines, not only from that vein in which
the shaft is sunk, but also from other veins, then it becomes necessary for a
large sump to be made to collect the water; from this sump the water is
drained by machines which draw it through pipes, or by ox-hides, about
which I will say more in the next book. The water which pours into the
tunnels from the veins and stringers and seams in the rocks is carried
away in the drains.
Air is driven into the extremities of deep shafts and long tunnels by
powerful blowing machines, as I will explain in the following book, which
will deal with these machines also. The outer air flows spontaneously into
the caverns of the earth, and when it can pass through them comes out again. This, however, comes about in different ways, for in spring and summer it
flows into the deeper shafts, traverses the tunnels or drifts, and finds its way
lowest tunnel and, meeting a shaft in its course, turns aside to a higher tunnel
and passes out therefrom; but in autumn and winter, on the other hand, it
enters the upper tunnel or shaft and comes out at the deeper ones. This
change in the flow of air currents occurs in temperate regions at the beginning
of spring and the end of autumn, but in cold regions at the end of spring
and the beginning of autumn. But at each period, before the air regularly
assumes its own accustomed course, generally for a space of fourteen days
it undergoes frequent variations, now blowing into an upper shaft or
tunnel, now into a lower one. But enough of this, let us now proceed to
what remains.
There are two kinds of shafts, one of the depth already described, of
which kind there are usually several in one mine; especially if the mine is
entered by a tunnel and is metal-bearing. For when the first tunnel is
connected with the first shaft, two new shafts are sunk; or if the inrush of
water hinders sinking, sometimes three are sunk; so that one may take
the place of a sump and the work of sinking which has been begun may be
continued by means of the remaining two shafts; the same is done in the
case of the second tunnel and the third, or even the fourth, if so many are
driven into a mountain. The second kind of shaft is very deep, sometimes
as much as sixty, eighty, or one hundred fathoms. These shafts continue
vertically toward the depths of the earth, and by means of a hauling-rope
the broken rock and metalliferous ores are drawn out of the mine; for which
reason miners call them vertical shafts. Over these shafts are erected
machines by which water is extracted; when they are above ground the
machines are usually worked by horses, but when they are in tunnels, other
kinds are used which are turned by water-power. Such are the shafts which
are sunk when a vein is rich in metal.
Now shafts, of whatever kind they may be, are supported in various
ways. If the vein is hard, and also the hanging and footwall rock, the shaft
does not require much timbering, but timbers are placed at intervals, one end
of each of which is fixed in a hitch cut into the rock of the hangingwall and
the other fixed into a hitch cut in the footwall. To these timbers are fixed
small timbers along the footwall, to which are fastened the lagging and
ladders. The lagging is also fixed to the timbers, both to those which screen
off the shaft on the ends from the vein, and to those which screen off the
rest of the shaft from that part in which the ladders are placed. The lagging
on the sides of the shaft confine the vein, so as to prevent fragments of it
which have become loosened by water from dropping into the shaft and
terrifying, or injuring, or knocking off the miners and other workmen who
are going up or down the ladders from one part of the mine to another. For
the same reason, the lagging between the ladders and the haulage-way on
the other hand, confine and shut off from the ladders the fragments of rock
which fall from the buckets or baskets while they are being drawn up;
moreover, they make the arduous and difficult descent and ascent to appear
less terrible, and in fact to be less dangerous.
If a vein is soft and the rock of the hanging and footwalls is weak,
a closer structure is necessary; for this purpose timbers are joined together
in rectangular shapes and placed one after the other without a break. These
A—WALL PLATES. B—DIVIDERS. C—LONG END POSTS. D—END PLATES.
timbers, which reach from the hangingwall to the footwall, are fixed into corres
ponding square holes in the timbers which lie along the hanging or footwall,
or the upper part of the end of one and the lower part of the end of the other
are cut out and one laid on the other. The great weight of these joined
timbers is sustained by stout beams placed at intervals, which are deeply set
into hitches in the footwall and hangingwall, but are inclined. In order that
these joined timbers may remain stationary, wooden wedges or poles cut
from trees are driven in between the timbers and the vein and the hanging
wall and the footwall; and the space which remains empty is filled with loose
dirt. If the hanging and footwall rock is sometimes hard and sometimes soft,
and the vein likewise, solid joined timbers are not used, but timbers are
placed at intervals; and where the rock is soft and the vein crumbling,
carpenters put in lagging between them and the wall rocks, and behind these
they fill with loose dirt; by this means they fill up the void.
When a very deep shaft, whether vertical or inclined, is supported by
joined timbers, then, since they are sometimes of bad material and a fall is
threatened, for the sake of greater firmness three or four pairs of strong end
posts are placed between these, one pair on the hangingwall side, the other
on the footwall side. To prevent them from falling out of position and to
make them firm and substantial, they are supported by frequent end plates,
and in order that these may be more securely fixed they are mortised into
the posts. Further, in whatever way the shaft may be timbered, dividers
are placed upon the wall plates, and to these is fixed lagging, and this
marks off and separates the ladder-way from the remaining part of the shaft. If a vertical shaft is a very deep one, planks are laid upon the timbers by the
side of the ladders and fixed on to the timbers, in order that the men who are
going up or down may sit or stand upon them and rest when they are tired. To prevent danger to the shovellers from rocks which, after being drawn up
from so deep a shaft fall down again, a little above the bottom of the shaft
small rough sticks are placed close together on the timbers, in such a way as
to cover the whole space of the shaft except the ladder-way. A hole,
however, is left in this structure near the footwall, which is kept open so that
there may be one opening to the shaft from the bottom, that the buckets
full of the materials which have been dug out may be drawn from the
shaft through it by machines, and may be returned to the same place again
empty; and so the shovellers and other workmen, as it were hiding beneath
this structure, remain perfectly safe in the shaft.
In mines on one vein there are driven one, two, or sometimes three
or more tunnels, always one above the other. If the vein is solid and
hard, and likewise the hanging and footwall rock, no part of the tunnel
needs support, beyond that which is required at the mouth, because at that
spot there is not yet solid rock; if the vein is soft, and the hanging and
footwall rock are likewise soft, the tunnel requires frequent strong timbering,
which is provided in the following way. First, two dressed posts are erected
and set into the tunnel floor, which is dug out a little; these are of medium
touch the top of the tunnel; then upon them is placed a smaller dressed cap,
which is mortised into the heads of the posts: at the bottom, other small
timbers, whose ends are similarly squared, are mortised into the posts. At
each interval of one and a half fathoms, one of these sets is erected; each one
of these the miners call a “little doorway,” because it opens a certain amount
of passage way; and indeed, when necessity requires it, doors are fixed to the
timbers of each little doorway so that it can be closed. Then lagging of
planks or of poles is placed upon the caps lengthwise, so as to reach from one
set of timbers to another, and is laid along the sides, in case some portion of
the body of the mountain may fall, and by its bulk impede passage or crush
persons coming in or out. Moreover, to make the timbers remain stationary,
wooden pegs are driven between them and the sides of the tunnel. Lastly,
if rock or earth are carried out in wheelbarrows, planks joined together are
laid upon the sills; if the rock is hauled out in trucks, then two timbers
three-quarters of a foot thick and wide are laid on the sills, and, where they
join, these are usually hollowed out so that in the hollow, as in a road, the iron
pin of the truck may be pushed along; indeed, because of this pin in the
groove, the truck does not leave the worn track to the left or right. Beneath
the sills are the drains through which the water flows away.
A—POSTS. B—CAPS. C—SILLS. D—DOORS. E—LAGGING. F—DRAINS.
Miners timber drifts in the same way as tunnels.
These do not, however,
require sill-pieces, or drains; for the broken rock is not hauled very far, nor does
the water have far to flow. If the vein above is metal-bearing, as it sometimes is
drifts that have already been driven, other drifts are driven again
and again until that part of the vein is reached which does not yield metal. The timbering of these openings is done as follows: stulls are set at
intervals into hitches in the hanging and footwall, and upon them
smooth poles are laid continuously; and that they may be able to
bear the weight, the stulls are generally a foot and a half thick. After the
ore has been taken out and the mining of the vein is being done elsewhere,
the rock then broken, especially if it cannot be taken away without great
difficulty, is thrown into these openings among the timber, and the carriers
of the ore are saved toil, and the owners save half the expense. This then,
generally speaking, is the method by which everything relating to the
timbering of shafts, tunnels, and drifts is carried out.
All that I have hitherto written is in part peculiar to
and in part common to all kinds of veins; of what follows, part is specially
applicable to But first I will
describe how Where torrents, rivers, or
streams have by inundations washed away part of the slope of a mountain or
a hill, and have disclosed a
and narrow, and then wider, for nearly all the vein should be hewn away; and
when this tunnel has been driven further, a shaft which supplies air should be
sunk in the mountain or hill, and through it from time to time the ore, earth,
and rock can be drawn up at less expense than if they be drawn out through the
very great length of the tunnel; and even in those places to which the tunnel
does not yet reach, miners dig shafts in order to open a
they conjecture must lie beneath the soil. In this way, when the upper
layers are removed, they dig through rock sometimes of one kind and colour,
sometimes of one kind but different colours, sometimes of different kinds but
of one colour, and, lastly, of different kinds and different colours. The thickness
of rock, both of each single stratum and of all combined, is uncertain, for
the whole of the strata are in some places twenty fathoms deep, in others
more than fifty; individual strata are in some places half a foot thick; in others,
one, two, or more feet; in others, one, two, three, or more fathoms. For
example, in those districts which lie at the foot of the Harz mountains,
there are many different coloured strata, covering a copper
When the soil has been stripped, first of all is disclosed a stratum which
is red, but of a dull shade and of a thickness of twenty, thirty, or five and
thirty fathoms. Then there is another stratum, also red, but of a light
shade, which has usually a thickness of about two fathoms. Beneath this is a
stratum of ash-coloured clay nearly a fathom thick, which, although it is
not metalliferous, is reckoned a vein. Then follows a third stratum,
which is ashy, and about three fathoms thick. Beneath this lies a vein
of ashes to the thickness of five fathoms, and these ashes are mixed with
rock of the same colour. Joined to the last, and underneath, comes a
stratum, the fourth in number, dark in colour and a foot thick. Under this
comes the fifth stratum, of a pale or yellowish colour, two feet thick; under-
thick. Afterward occurs the seventh stratum, likewise of dark colour, but
still darker than the last, and two feet thick. This is followed by an eighth
stratum, ashy, rough, and a foot thick. This kind, as also the others,
is sometimes distinguished by stringers of the stone which easily melts in
fire of the second order. Beneath this is another ashy rock, light in
weight, and five feet thick. Next to this comes a lighter ash-coloured
one, a foot thick; beneath this lies the eleventh stratum, which is dark and
very much like the seventh, and two feet thick. Below the last is
a twelfth stratum of a whitish colour and soft, also two feet thick; the
weight of this rests on a thirteenth stratum, ashy and one foot thick, whose
weight is in turn supported by a fourteenth stratum, which is blackish and
half a foot thick. There follows this, another stratum of black colour,
likewise half a foot thick, which is again followed by a sixteenth stratum
still blacker in colour, whose thickness is also the same. Beneath this, and
last of all, lies the cupriferous stratum, black coloured and schistose, in which
there sometimes glitter scales of gold-coloured pyrites in the very thin sheets,
which, as I said elsewhere, often take the forms of various living things.
The miners mine out a
driving a low tunnel in it, and if the nature of the work and place permit, they
sink also a shaft in order to discover whether there is a second vein beneath
the first one; for sometimes beneath it there are two, three, or more similar
metal-bearing veins, and these are excavated in the same way laterally and
longitudinally. They generally mine
usually bind on themselves small wooden cradles. For this reason, this
particular class of miners, in order to use their iron tools, are obliged to bend
their necks to the left, not infrequently having them twisted. Now these
veins also sometimes divide, and where these parts re-unite, ore of a richer and
a better quality is generally found; the same thing occurs where the stringers,
of which they are not altogether devoid, join with them, or cut them crosswise,
or divide them obliquely. To prevent a mountain or hill, which has in
this way been undermined, from subsiding by its weight, either some natural
pillars and arches are left, on which the pressure rests as on a foundation, or
timbering is done for support. Moreover, the materials which are dug out
and which are devoid of metal are removed in bowls, and are thrown back,
thus once more filling the caverns.
Next, as to These are dug by a somewhat different
method, for when one of these shows some metal at the top of the ground,
first of all one shaft is sunk; then, if it is worth while, around this one many
shafts are sunk and tunnels are driven into the mountain. If a torrent or
spring has torn fragments of metal from such a vein, a tunnel is first driven
into the mountain or hill for the purpose of searching for the ore; then
when it is found, a vertical shaft is sunk in it. Since the whole mountain, or
more especially the whole hill, is undermined, seeing that the whole of it is
composed of ore, it is necessary to leave the natural pillars and arches, or the
place is timbered. But sometimes when a vein is very hard it is broken by
fire, whereby it happens that the soft pillars break up, or the timbers are
burnt away, and the mountain by its great weight sinks into itself, and then
the shaft buildings are swallowed up in the great subsidence. Therefore,
about a
ject to this kind of ruin, through which the materials that are excavated may
be carried out, not only while the pillars and underpinnings still remain whole
and solid, but also after the supports have been destroyed by fire and have
fallen. Since ore which has thus fallen must necessarily be broken by fire,
new shafts through which the smoke can escape must be sunk in the abyss. At those places where stringers intersect, richer ore is generally obtained
from the mine; these stringers, in the case of tin mines, sometimes have in
them black stones the size of a walnut. If such a vein is found in a plain,
as not infrequently happens in the case of iron, many shafts are sunk, because
they cannot be sunk very deep. The work is carried on by this method
because the miners cannot drive a tunnel into a level plain of this kind.
There remain the stringers in which gold alone is sometimes found,
in the vicinity of rivers and streams, or in swamps. If upon the soil being
removed, many of these are found, composed of earth somewhat baked and
burnt, as may sometimes be seen in clay pits, there is some hope that gold
may be obtained from them, especially if several join together. But the
very point of junction must be pierced, and the length and width searched
for ore, and in these places very deep shafts cannot be sunk.
I have completed one part of this book, and now come to the other, in
which I will deal with the art of surveying. Miners measure the solid
that their workmen may not encroach on other people's possessions. The
surveyor either measures the interval not yet wholly dug through, which
lies between the mouth of a tunnel and a shaft to be sunk to that depth, or
between the mouth of a shaft and the tunnel to be driven to that spot which
lies under the shaft, or between both, if the tunnel is neither so long as to
reach to the shaft, nor the shaft so deep as to reach to the tunnel; and thus
on both sides work is still to be done. Or in some cases, within the tunnels
and drifts, are to be fixed the boundaries of the meers, just as the
has determined the boundaries of the same meers above ground.
Each method of surveying depends on the measuring of triangles.
A
small triangle should be laid out, and from it calculations must be made
regarding a larger one. Most particular care must be taken that we do not
deviate at all from a correct measuring; for if, at the beginning, we are drawn Now these triangles are of many shapes, since shafts differ among themselves
and are not all sunk by one and the same method into the depths of the
earth, nor do the slopes of all mountains come down to the valley or plain in
the same manner. For if a shaft is vertical, there is a triangle with a right
angle, which the Greeks call
inequalities of the mountain slope, has either two equal sides or three unequal
sides. The Greeks call the former
a right angle triangle cannot have three equal sides. If a shaft is inclined
and sunk in the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, a triangle is likewise
made with a right angle, and this again, according to the various inequalities
of the mountain slope, has either two equal or three unequal sides. But if
a shaft is inclined and is sunk in one vein, and a tunnel is driven in
another vein, then a triangle comes into existence which has either an obtuse
angle or all acute angles. The former the Greeks call
equal sides, but in accordance with the different mountain slopes has either
two equal sides or three unequal sides. That triangle which has all acute
angles in accordance with the different mountain slopes has either three equal
sides, which the Greeks call
unequal sides.
The surveyor, as I said, employs his art when the owners of the mines
desire to know how many fathoms of the intervening ground require to be
dug; when a tunnel is being driven toward a shaft and does not yet reach
it; or when the shaft has not yet been sunk to the depth of the bottom of the
tunnel which is under it; or when neither the tunnel reaches to that point,
nor has the shaft been sunk to it. It is of importance that miners should
know how many fathoms remain from the tunnel to the shaft, or from the
shaft to the tunnel, in order to calculate the expenditure; and in order that
the owners of a metal-bearing mine may hasten the sinking of a shaft and
the excavation of the metal, before the tunnel reaches that point and the
tunnel owners excavate part of the metal by any right of their own; and on
the other hand, it is important that the owners of a tunnel may similarly
hasten their driving before a shaft can be sunk to the depth of a tunnel, so
that they may excavate the metal to which they will have a right.
The surveyor, first of all, if the beams of the shaft-house do not give him
the opportunity, sets a pair of forked posts by the sides of the shaft in such
a manner that a pole may be laid across them. Next, from the pole he lets
down into the shaft a cord with a weight attached to it. Then he stretches a
second cord, attached to the upper end of the first cord, right down along the
slope of the mountain to the bottom of the mouth of the tunnel, and fixes it to
the ground. Next, from the same pole not far from the first cord, he lets
down a third cord, similarly weighted, so that it may intersect the second
cord, which descends obliquely. Then, starting from that point where the
third cord cuts the second cord which descends obliquely to the mouth of the
tunnel, he measures the second cord upward to where it reaches the end of
A—UPRIGHT FORKED POSTS. B—POLE OVER THE POSTS. C—SHAFT. D—FIRST CORD.
E—WEIGHT OF FIRST CORD. F—SECOND CORD. G—SAME FIXED GROUND. H—HEAD
OF FIRST CORD. I—MOUTH OF TUNNEL. K—THIRD CORD. L—WEIGHT OF THIRD CORD.
M—FIRST SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. N—SECOND SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. O—THIRD SIDE
MINOR TRIANGLE. P—THE MINOR TRIANGLE.Afterward, starting again from that point where the third cord intersects the
second cord, he measures the straight space which lies between that point
and the opposite point on the first cord, and in that way forms the minor
triangle, and he notes this second side of the minor triangle in the same way as
before. Then, if it is necessary, from the angle formed by the first cord and
the second side of the minor triangle, he measures upward to the end of the
first cord and also makes a note of this third side of the minor triangle. The
third side of the minor triangle, if the shaft is vertical or inclined and is sunk
on the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, will necessarily be the same
length as the third cord above the point where it intersects the second cord;
and so, as often as the first side of the minor triangle is contained in the
length of the whole cord which descends obliquely, so many times the length
of the second side of the minor triangle indicates the distance between the
mouth of the tunnel and the point to which the shaft must be sunk; and
similarly, so many times the length of the third side of the minor triangle
gives the distance between the mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the
tunnel.
When there is a level bench on the mountain slope, the surveyor first
measures across this with a measuring-rod; then at the edges of this bench
he sets up forked posts, and applies the principle of the triangle to the two
sloping parts of the mountain; and to the fathoms which are the length of
that part of the tunnel determined by the triangles, he adds the number
of fathoms which are the width of the bench. But if sometimes the
mountain side stands up, so that a cord cannot run down from the shaft to
the mouth of the tunnel, or, on the other hand, cannot run up from the
mouth of the tunnel to the shaft, and, therefore, one cannot connect them in
a straight line, the surveyor, in order to fix an accurate triangle, measures the
mountain; and going downward he substitutes for the first part of the cord
a pole one fathom long, and for the second part a pole half a fathom
long. Going upward, on the contrary, for the first part of the cord he sub
stitutes a pole half a fathom long, and for the next part, one a whole fathom
long; then where he requires to fix his triangle he adds a straight line to
these angles.
To make this system of measuring clear and more explicit, I will proceed
by describing each separate kind of triangle. When a shaft is vertical or
inclined, and is sunk in the same vein on which the tunnel is driven, there
is created, as I said, a triangle containing a right angle. Now if the minor
triangle has the two sides equal, which, in accordance with the numbering
used by surveyors, are the second and third sides, then the second and third
sides of the major triangle will be equal; and so also the intervening
distances will be equal which lie between the mouth of the tunnel and the
bottom of the shaft, and which lie between the mouth of the shaft and the
bottom of the tunnel. For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is
seven feet long and the second and likewise the third sides are five feet, and
seven feet, that is 117 fathoms and five feet, then the intervening space, of
course, whether the whole of it has been already driven through or has yet
to be driven, will be one hundred times five feet, which makes eighty-three
fathoms and two feet. Anyone with this example of proportions will be
able to construct the major and minor triangles in the same way as I have
done, if there be the necessary upright posts and cross-beams. When a shaft is
vertical the triangle is absolutely upright; when it is inclined and is sunk on
the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, it is inclined toward one side.
A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.
Therefore, if a tunnel has been driven into the mountain for sixty fathoms,
there remains a space of ground to be penetrated twenty-three fathoms and
two feet long; for five feet of the second side of the major triangle, which
lies above the mouth of the shaft and corresponds with the first side of the
minor triangle, must not be added. Therefore, if the shaft has been sunk
in the middle of the head meer, a tunnel sixty fathoms long will reach
to the boundary of the meer only when the tunnel has been extended a
further two fathoms and two feet; but if the shaft is located in the middle of
an ordinary meer, then the boundary will be reached when the tunnel has been
driven a further length of nine fathoms and two feet. Since a tunnel, for
every one hundred fathoms of length, rises in grade one fathom, or at all
events, ought to rise as it proceeds toward the shaft, one more fathom must
always be taken from the depth allowed to the shaft, and one added to the
length allowed to the tunnel. Proportionately, because a tunnel fifty
fathoms long is raised half a fathom, this amount must be taken from the
depth of the shaft and added to the length of the tunnel. In the same way
if a tunnel is one hundred or fifty fathoms shorter or longer, the same propor
tion also must be taken from the depth of the one and added to the length
of the other. For this reason, in the case mentioned above, half a fathom
and a little more must be added to the distance to be driven through, so
that there remain twenty-three fathoms, five feet, two palms, one and a half
digits and a fifth of a digit; that is, if even the minutest proportions are
carried out; and surveyors do not neglect these without good cause. Similarly, if the shaft is seventy fathoms deep, in order that it may reach to
the bottom of the tunnel, it still must be sunk a further depth of thirteen
fathoms and two feet, or rather twelve fathoms and a half, one foot, two
digits, and four-fifths of half a digit. And in this instance five feet must be
deducted from the reckoning, because these five feet complete the third side
of the minor triangle, which is above the mouth of the shaft, and from its
and the fifth part of half a digit. But if the tunnel has been driven to a
point where it is under the shaft, then to reach the roof of the tunnel the
shaft must still be sunk a depth of eleven fathoms, two and a half feet, one
palm, two digits, and four-fifths of half a digit.
If a minor triangle is produced of the kind having three unequal sides,
then the sides of the greater triangle cannot be equal; that is, if the first
side of the minor triangle is eight feet long, the second six feet long, and the
third five feet long, and the cord along the side of the greater triangle, not
to go too far from the example just given, is one hundred and one times
eight feet, that is, one hundred and thirty-four fathoms and four feet, the
distance which lies between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of the
shaft will occupy one hundred times six feet in length, that is, one hundred
fathoms. The distance between the mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the
tunnel is one hundred times five feet, that is, eighty-three fathoms and two feet. And so, if the tunnel is eighty-five fathoms long, the remainder to be driven
into the mountain is fifteen fathoms long, and here, too, a correction in
measurement must be taken from the depth of the shaft and added to the
length of the tunnel; what this is precisely, I will pursue no further, since
everyone having a small knowledge of arithmetic can work it out. If the
shaft is sixty-seven fathoms deep, in order that it may reach the bottom of
the tunnel, the further distance required to be sunk amounts to sixteen
fathoms and two feet.
A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.
The surveyor employs this same method in measuring the mountain,
whether the shaft and tunnel are on one and the same vein, whether the vein
is vertical or inclined, or whether the shaft is on the principal vein and the tunnel
on a transverse vein descending vertically to the depths of the earth; in the
latter case the excavation is to be made where the transverse vein cuts the
vertical vein. If the principal vein descends on an incline and the cross-vein
descends vertically, then a minor triangle is created having one obtuse angle or
all three angles acute. If the minor triangle has one angle obtuse and the two
sides which are the second and third are equal, then the second and third
sides of the major triangle will be equal, so that if the first side of the minor
triangle is nine feet, the second, and likewise the third, will be five feet. Then
the first side of the major triangle will be one hundred and one times nine
feet, or one hundred and fifty-one and one-half fathoms, and each of the
other sides of the major triangle will be one hundred times five feet, that is,
eighty-three fathoms and two feet. But when the first shaft is inclined,
inclined, and one always following the other. Therefore, if a tunnel is seventy
seven fathoms long, it will reach to the middle of the bottom of a shaft when
six fathoms and two feet further have been sunk. But if all such inclined
shafts are seventy-six fathoms deep, in order that the last one may reach
the bottom of the tunnel, a depth of seven fathoms and two feet remains to
be sunk.
TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.
If a minor triangle is made which has an obtuse angle and three unequal
sides, then again the sides of the large triangle cannot be equal. For
example, if the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long, the second
three feet, and the third four feet, and the cord along the side of the greater
triangle one hundred and one times six feet, that is, one hundred and one
fathoms, the distance between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of
the last shaft will be a length one hundred times three feet, or fifty fathoms;
but the depth that lies between the mouth of the first shaft and the bottom of
the tunnel is one hundred times four feet, or sixty-six fathoms and four feet. Therefore, if a tunnel is forty-four fathoms long, the remaining distance to
be driven is six fathoms. If the shafts are fifty-eight fathoms deep, the
newest will touch the bottom of the tunnel when eight fathoms and four
feet have been sunk.
TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.
If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute and its
three sides equal, then necessarily the second and third sides of the minor
triangle will be equal, and likewise the sides of the major triangle frequently
referred to will be equal. Thus if each side of the minor triangle is six feet
long, and the cord measurement for the side of the major triangle is one
hundred and one times six feet, that is, one hundred and one fathoms, then
both the distances to be dug will be one hundred fathoms. And thus if the
tunnel is ninety fathoms long, it will reach the middle of the bottom of the
last shaft when ten fathoms further have been driven. If the shafts are
it is sunk a further depth of five fathoms.
A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES EQUAL.
If a triangle is made which has all its angles acute, but only two sides
equal, namely, the first and third, then the second and third sides are not
equal; therefore the distances to be dug cannot be equal. For example, if
the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long, and the second is four feet,
and the third is six feet, and the cord measurement for the side of the major
triangle is one hundred and one times six feet, that is, one hundred and one
fathoms, then the distance between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of
the last shaft will be sixty-six fathoms and four feet. But the distance from the
mouth of the first shaft to the bottom of the tunnel is one hundred fathoms. So if the tunnel is sixty fathoms long, the remaining distance to be driven
into the mountain is six fathoms and four feet. If the shaft is ninety-seven
fathoms deep, the last one will reach the bottom of the tunnel when a further
depth of three fathoms has been sunk.
TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND TWO SIDES EQUAL, A, B, UNEQUAL SIDE C.
If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute, but its
three sides unequal, then again the distances to be dug cannot be equal. For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is seven feet long, the
second side is four feet, and the third side is six feet, and the cord measure
ment for the side of the major triangle is one hundred and one times seven
feet or one hundred and seventeen fathoms and four feet, the distance
between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of the last shaft will be
four hundred feet or sixty-six fathoms, and the depth between the mouth of
the first shaft and the bottom of the tunnel will be one hundred fathoms. Therefore, if a tunnel is fifty fathoms long, it will reach the middle of the
bottom of the newest shaft when it has been driven sixteen fathoms and four
feet further. But if the shafts are then ninety-two fathoms deep, the last
eight fathoms.
A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES UNEQUAL.
This is the method of the surveyor in measuring the mountain, if the
principal vein descends inclined into the depths of the earth or the transverse
vein is vertical. But if they are both inclined, the surveyor uses the same
method, or he measures the slope of the mountain separately from the slope
of the shaft. Next, if a transverse vein in which a tunnel is driven does not
cut the principal vein in that spot where the shaft is sunk, then it is necessary
for the starting point of the survey to be in the other shaft in which the
transverse vein cuts the principal vein. But if there be no shaft on that spot
where the outcrop of the transverse vein cuts the outcrop of the principal
vein, then the surface of the ground which lies between the shafts must
be measured, or that between the shaft and the place where the outcrop of
the one vein intersects the outcrop of the other.
Some surveyors, although they use three cords, nevertheless ascertain
only the length of a tunnel by that method of measuring, and determine
the depth of a shaft by another method; that is, by the method by
which cords are re-stretched on a level part of the mountain or in
a valley, or in flat fields, and are measured again. Some, however, do
not employ this method in surveying the depth of a shaft and the
length of a tunnel, but use only two cords, a graduated hemicycle
rod half a fathom long. They suspend in the shaft one cord, fastened
from the upper pole and weighted, just as the others do. Fastened to the
upper end of this cord, they stretch another right down the slope of the mountain
to the bottom of the mouth of the tunnel and fix it to the ground. Then to
the upper part of this second cord they apply on its lower side the broad part
of a hemicycle. This consists of half a circle, the outer margin of which is
covered with wax, and within this are six semi-circular lines. From the
there proceed straight lines converging toward the centre of the hemicycle;
these mark the middles of intervening spaces lying between other straight lines
which extend to the fourth semi-circular line. But all lines whatsoever, from
the waxed margin up to the fourth line, whether they go beyond it or not,
correspond with the graduated lines which mark the minor spaces of a rod. Those which go beyond the fourth line correspond with the lines marking
A—WAXED SEMICIRCLE OF THE HEMICYCLE. B—SEMICIRCULAR LINES. C—STRAIGHT
LINES. D—LINE MEASURING THE HALF. E—LINE MEASURING THE WHOLE. F—TONGUE.
middle of the intervening space which lies between the others. The
straight lines, which run from the fifth to the sixth semi-circular line, show
nothing further. Nor does the line which measures the half, show anything
when it has already passed from the sixth straight line to the base of the
hemicycle. When the hemicycle is applied to the cord, if its tongue indicates
the sixth straight line which lies between the second and third semi-circular
lines, the surveyor counts on the rod six lines which separate the minor
spaces, and if the length of this portion of the rod be taken from the second
cord, as many times as the cord itself is half-fathoms long, the remaining
length of cord shows the distance the tunnel must be driven to reach under
the shaft. But if he sees that the tongue has gone so far that it marks the
sixth line between the fourth and fifth semi-circular lines, he counts six lines
which separate the major spaces on the rod; and this entire space is deducted
from the length of the second cord, as many times as the number of whole
fathoms which the cord contains; and then, in like manner, the remaining
length of cord shows us the distance the tunnel must be driven to reach
under the shaft.
STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST CORD. B—SECOND CORD. C—THIRD CORD.
D—TRIANGLE.
Both these surveyors, as well as the others, in the first place make use
of the haulage rope. These they measure by means of others made of linden
bark, because the latter do not stretch at all, while the former become very
slack. These cords they stretch on the surveyor's field, the first one to
represent the parts of mountain slopes which descend obliquely. Then the
second cord, which represents the length of the tunnel to be driven to reach
the shaft, they place straight, in such a direction that one end of it can touch
the lower end of the first cord; then they similarly lay the third cord straight,
and in such a direction that its upper end may touch the upper end of
the first cord, and its lower end the other extremity of the second cord, and
thus a triangle is formed. This third cord is measured by the instrument
with the index, to determine its relation to the perpendicular; and the length
of this cord shows the depth of the shaft.
Some surveyors, to make their system of measuring the depth of a shaft
more certain, use five stretched cords: the first one descending obliquely;
two, that is to say the second and third, for ascertaining the length of the
tunnel; two for the depth of the shaft; in which way they form a quadrangle
divided into two equal triangles, and this tends to greater accuracy.
STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST. B—SECOND. B—THIRD. C—FOURTH. C—FIFTH.
D—QUADRANGLE.
These systems of measuring the depth of a shaft and the length of a
tunnel, are accurate when the vein and also the shaft or shafts go down to the The same is true
when a tunnel runs straight on to a shaft. But when each of them bends
now in this, now in that direction, if they have not been completely driven
and sunk, no living man is clever enough to judge how far they are deflected
from a straight course. But if the whole of either one of the two has been ex
cavated its full distance, then we can estimate more easily the length of one,
or the depth of the other; and so the location of the tunnel, which is below
a newly-started shaft, is determined by a method of surveying which I will
describe. First of all a tripod is fixed at the mouth of the tunnel, and likewise at
the mouth of the shaft which has been started, or at the place where the shaft will
be started. The tripod is made of three stakes fixed to the ground, a small
rectangular board being placed upon the stakes and fixed to them, and on
this is set a compass. Then from the lower tripod a weighted cord is let
down perpendicularly to the earth, close to which cord a stake is fixed in the
ground. To this stake another cord is tied and drawn straight into the tunnel
to a point as far as it can go without being bent by the hangingwall or the
footwall of the vein. Next, from the cord which hangs from the lower tripod,
a third cord likewise fixed is brought straight up the sloping side of the
mountain to the stake of the upper tripod, and fastened to it. In order that
the measuring of the depth of the shaft may be more certain, the third cord
should touch one and the same side of the cord hanging from the lower tripod
which is touched by the second cord—the one which is drawn into the tunnel. All this having been correctly carried out, the surveyor, when at length
the cord which has been drawn straight into the tunnel is about to be bent
by the hangingwall or footwall, places a plank in the bottom of the tunnel
and on it sets the orbis, an instrument which has an indicator peculiar
to itself. This instrument, although it also has waxed circles, differs from the
other, which I have described in the third book. But by both these
instruments, as well as by a rule and a square, he determines whether the
stretched cords reach straight to the extreme end of the tunnel, or whether
they sometimes reach straight, and are sometimes bent by the footwall or
hangingwall. Each instrument is divided into parts, but the compass into
twenty-four parts, the orbis into sixteen parts; for first of all it is divided
into four principal parts, and then each of these is again divided into four. Both have waxed circles, but the compass has seven circles, and the orbis
only five circles. These waxed circles the surveyor marks, whichever instru
ment he uses, and by the succession of these same marks he notes any
change in the direction in which the cord extends. The orbis has an open
ing running from its outer edge as far as the centre, into which opening he
puts an iron screw, to which he binds the second cord, and by screwing it into
the plank, fixes it so that the orbis may be immovable. He takes care
to prevent the second cord, and afterward the others which are put up,
from being pulled off the screw, by employing a heavy iron, into an opening
of which he fixes the head of the screw. In the case of the compass, since
it has no opening, he merely places it by the side of the screw. That the
instrument does not incline forward or backward, and in that way the
instrument a standing plummet level, the tongue of which, if the instrument
is level, indicates no numbers, but the point from which the numbers start.
COMPASS. A, B, C, D, E, F, G ARE THE SEVEN WAXED CIRCLES.
When the surveyor has carefully observed each separate angle of the
tunnel and has measured such parts as he ought to measure, then he lays
them out in the same way on the surveyor's field
no less carefully observes each separate angle and measures them. First of
all, to each angle, according as the calculation of his triangle and his art
require it, he lays out a straight cord as a line. Then he stretches a cord at
A, B, C, D, E—FIVE WAXED CIRCLES OF THE
F—OPENING OF SAME. G—SCREW. H—PERFORATED IRON.
A—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MINOR SPACES. B—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MAJOR SPACES.
may reach the end of the straight cord; then he stretches a third cord
A—STANDING PLUMMET LEVEL. B—TONGUE. C—LEVEL AND TONGUE.
the upper end of the second cord, and with its lower end the last end of the
first cord. The length of the third cord shows the depth of the shaft, as I
said before, and at the same time that point on the tunnel to which the shaft
will reach when it has been sunk.
If one or more shafts reach the tunnel through intermediate drifts and
shafts, the surveyor, starting from the nearest which is open to the air,
measures in a shorter time the depth of the shaft which requires to be sunk,
than if he starts from the mouth of the tunnel. First of all he measures
that space on the surface which lies between the shaft which has been sunk
and the one which requires to be sunk. Then he measures the incline of all
the shafts which it is necessary to measure, and the length of all the drifts
with which they are in any way connected to the tunnel. Lastly, he
measures part of the tunnel; and when all this is properly done, he demon
strates the depth of the shaft and the point in the tunnel to which the shaft
will reach. But sometimes a very deep straight shaft requires to be sunk
at the same place where there is a previous inclined shaft, and to the same
depth, in order that loads may be raised and drawn straight up by machines. Those machines on the surface are turned by horses; those inside the earth,
by the same means, and also by water-power. And so, if it becomes
necessary to sink such a shaft, the surveyor first of all fixes an iron screw
in the upper part of the old shaft, and from the screw he lets down a cord
as far as the first angle, where again he fixes a screw, and again lets down the
cord as far as the second angle; this he repeats again and again until the
cord reaches to the bottom of the shaft. Then to each angle of the cord he
applies a hemicycle, and marks the waxed semi-circle according to the lines
which the tongue indicates, and designates it by a number, in case it should be
moved; then he measures the separate parts of the cord with another cord
made of linden bark. Afterward, when he has come back out of the shaft,
he goes away and transfers the markings from the waxed semi-circle of the
hemicycle to an orbis similarly waxed. Lastly, the cords are stretched on the
surveyor's field, and he measures the angles, as the system of measuring by
triangles requires, and ascertains which part of the footwall and which
part of the hangingwall rock must be cut away in order that the shaft may
descend straight. But if the surveyor is required to show the owners of the
mine, the spot in a drift or a tunnel in which a shaft needs to be raised
from the bottom upward, that it should cut through more quickly, he
begins measuring from the bottom of the drift or tunnel, at a point
beyond the spot at which the bottom of the shaft will arrive, when it has been
sunk. When he has measured the part of the drift or tunnel up to the first
shaft which connects with an upper drift, he measures the incline of this
shaft by applying a hemicycle or orbis to the cord. Then in a like manner
he measures the upper drift and the incline shaft which is sunk therein
toward which a raise is being dug, then again all the cords are stretched in
the surveyor's field, the last cord in such a way that it reaches the first, and
then he measures them. From this measurement is known in what part
vein remain to be broken through in order that the shaft may be connected.
I have described the first reason for surveying; I will now describe
another. When one vein comes near another, and their owners are different
persons who have late come into possession, whether they drive a tunnel
or a drift, or sink a shaft, they may encroach, or seem to encroach, without
any lawful right, upon the boundaries of the older owners, for which reason
the latter very often seek redress, or take legal proceedings. The surveyor
either himself settles the dispute between the owners, or by his art gives
evidence to the judges for making their decision, that one shall not encroach
on the mine of the other. Thus, first of all he measures the mines of each
party with a basket rope and cords of linden bark; and having applied to the
cords an orbis or a compass, he notes the directions in which they extend. Then he stretches the cords on the surveyor's field; and starting from that
point whose owners are in possession of the old meer toward the other,
whether it is in the hanging or footwall of the vein, he stretches a cross
cord in a straight line, according to the sixth division of the compass,
that is, at a right angle to the vein, for a distance of three and a
half fathoms, and assigns to the older owners that which belongs to
them. But if both ends of one vein are being dug out in two tunnels, or
drifts from opposite directions, the surveyor first of all considers the lower
tunnel or drift and afterward the upper one, and judges how much each of
them has risen little by little. On each side strong men take in their hands
a stretched cord and hold it so that there is no point where it is not strained
tight; on each side the surveyor supports the cord with a rod half a fathom
long, and stays the rod at the end with a short stick as often as he thinks
it necessary. But some fasten cords to the rods to make them steadier.
The surveyor attaches a suspended plummet level to the middle of the cord to
enable him to calculate more accurately on both sides, and from this he ascer
tains whether one tunnel has risen more than another, or in like manner one
drift more than another. Afterward he measures the incline of the shafts
on both sides, so that he can estimate their position on each side. Then he
easily sees how many fathoms remain in the space which must be broken
through. But the grade of each tunnel, as I said, should rise one fathom in
the distance of one hundred fathoms.
The Swiss surveyors, when they wish to measure tunnels driven into
the highest mountains, also use a rod half a fathom long, but composed of
three parts, which screw together, so that they may be shortened. They
use a cord made of linden bark to which are fastened slips of paper showing
the number of fathoms. They also employ an instrument peculiar to them,
which has a needle; but in place of the waxed circles they carry in their
hands a chart on which they inscribe the readings of the instrument. The
instrument is placed on the back part of the rod so that the tongue, and the
extended cord which runs through the three holes in the tongue, demonstrates
the direction, and they note the number of fathoms. The tongue shows
whether the cord inclines forward or backward. The tongue does not hang,
a half-lying position. They measure the tunnels for the purpose of knowing
how many fathoms they have been increased in elevation; how many fathoms
the lower is distant from the upper one; how many fathoms of interval is
INDICATOR OF A SUSPENDED PLUMMET LEVEL.
the same vein, or cross-stringers, or two veins which are approaching one
another.
But I return to our mines.
If the surveyor desires to fix the boundaries
of the meer within the tunnels or drifts, and mark to them with a sign cut in the
rock, in the same way that the
above ground, he first of all ascertains, by measuring in the manner
which I have explained above, which part of the tunnel or drift lies
beneath the surface boundary mark, stretching the cords along the drifts to
a point beyond that spot in the rock where he judges the mark should be
cut. Then, after the same cords have been laid out on the surveyor's field,
he starts from that upper cord at a point which shows the boundary mark,
and stretches another cross-cord straight downward according to the sixth
A—NEEDLE OF THE INSTRUMENT. B—ITS TONGUE. C, D, E—HOLES IN THE TONGUE.
Then that part
of the lowest cord which lies beyond the part to which the cross-cord
runs being removed, it shows at what point the boundary mark should
be cut into the rock of the tunnel or drift. The cutting is made in the
presence of the two Jurors and the manager and the foreman of each
mine. For as the
the boundary stones on the surface, so the surveyor cuts in the rock a sign
which for this reason is called the boundary rock. If he fixes the boundary
mark of a meer in which a shaft has recently begun to be sunk on a vein,
first of all he measures and notes the incline of that shaft by the com
pass or by another way with the applied cords; then he measures all
the drifts up to that one in whose rock the boundary mark has to
be cut. Of these drifts he measures each angle; then the cords, being
laid out on the surveyor's field, in a similar way he stretches a cross
cord, as I said, and cuts the sign on the rock. But if the underground
boundary rock has to be cut in a drift which lies beneath the first drift, the
surveyor starts from the mark in the first drift, notes the different angles,
one by one, takes his measurements, and in the lower drift stretches a cord
beyond that place where he judges the mark ought to be cut; and then,
as I said before, lays out the cords on the surveyor's field. Even if a vein
runs differently in the lower drift from the upper one, in which the first
boundary mark has been cut in the rock, still, in the lower drift the mark
must be cut in the rock vertically beneath. For if he cuts the lower mark
obliquely from the upper one some part of the possession of one mine is
taken away to its detriment, and given to the other. Moreover, if it
happens that the underground boundary mark requires to be cut in an
angle, the surveyor, starting from that angle, measures one fathom toward
the front of the mine and another fathom toward the back, and from these
measurements forms a triangle, and dividing its middle by a cross-cord,
makes his cutting for the boundary mark.
Lastly, the surveyor sometimes, in order to make more certain, finds the
boundary of the meers in those places where many old boundary marks
are cut in the rock. Then, starting from a stake fixed on the surface,
he first of all measures to the nearest mine; then he measures one shaft
after another; then he fixes a stake on the surveyors' field, and making
a beginning from it stretches the same cords in the same way and measures
them, and again fixes in the ground a stake which for him will signify the end
of his measuring. Afterward he again measures underground from that
spot at which he left off, as many shafts and drifts as he can remember. Then
he returns to the surveyor's field, and starting again from the second stake,
makes his measurements; and he does this as far as the drift in which the
boundary mark must be cut in the rock. Finally, commencing from the
stake first fixed in the ground, he stretches a cross-cord in a straight line to
the last stake, and this shows the length of the lowest drift. The point
where they touch, he judges to be the place where the underground boundary
mark should be cut.
END OF BOOK V.
Digging of veins I have written of, and the timbering
of shafts, tunnels, drifts, and other excavations,
and the art of surveying. I will now speak first of
all, of the iron tools with which veins and rocks are
broken, then of the buckets into which the lumps
of earth, rock, metal, and other excavated materials
are thrown, in order that they may be drawn, con
veyed, or carried out. Also, I will speak of the
water vessels and drains, then of the machines of
different kinds,And while all these
matters are being described accurately, many methods of work will be
explained.
There are certain iron tools which the miners designate by names of their
own, and besides these, there are wedges, iron blocks, iron plates, hammers,
crowbars, pikes, picks, hoes, and shovels. Of those which are especially
referred to as “iron tools” there are four varieties, which are different
from one another in length or thickness, but not in shape, for the
upper end of all of them is broad and square, so that it can be struck by the The lower end is pointed so as to split the hard rocks and veins
with its point. All of these have eyes except the fourth.
The first,
which is in daily use among miners, is three-quarters of a foot long, a digit
and a half wide, and a digit thick. The second is of the same width as the
first, and the same thickness, but one and one half feet long, and is used to
shatter the hardest veins in such a way that they crack open. The third
is the same length as the second, but is a little wider and thicker; with
this one they dig the bottoms of those shafts which slowly accumulate water. The fourth is nearly three palms and one digit long, two digits thick, and in
the upper end it is three digits wide, in the middle it is one palm wide, and
at the lower end it is pointed like the others; with this they cut out the
harder veins. The eye in the first tool is one palm distant from the upper
end, in the second and third it is seven digits distant; each swells out
around the eye on both sides, and into it they fit a wooden handle, which
they hold with one hand, while they strike the iron tool with a hammer, after
placing it against the rock. These tools are made larger or smaller as
necessary. The smiths, as far as possible, sharpen again all that become dull.
A—FIRST “IRON TOOL.” B—SECOND. C—THIRD. D—FOURTH.
BLOCK. G—IRON PLATE. H—WOODEN HANDLE. I—HANDLE INSERTED IN FIRST TOOL.
A wedge is usually three palms and two digits long and six digits wide;
at the upper end, for a distance of a palm, it is three digits thick, and
beyond that point it becomes thinner by degrees, until finally it is quite
sharp.
The iron block is six digits in length and width; at the upper end it is
two digits thick, and at the bottom a digit and a half. The iron plate is
the same length and width as the iron block, but it is very thin. All of these,
as I explained in the last book, are used when the hardest kind of veins are
hewn out. Wedges, locks, and plates, are likewise made larger or smaller.
A—SMALLEST OF THE SMALLER HAMMERS. B—INTERMEDIATE. C—LARGEST. D—SMALL
KIND OF THE LARGER HAMMER. E—LARGE KIND. F—WOODEN HANDLE. G—HANDLE
FIXED IN THE SMALLEST HAMMER.
Hammers are of two kinds, the smaller ones the miners hold in
one hand, and the larger ones they hold with both hands. The former,
because of their size and use, are of three sorts. With the smallest,
that is to say, the lightest, they strike the second “iron tool;” with the
intermediate one the first “iron tool;” and with the largest the third “iron
tool”; this one is two digits wide and thick. Of the larger sort of hammers
there are two kinds; with the smaller they strike the fourth “iron tool;”
with the larger they drive the wedges into the cracks; the former are three,
and the latter five digits wide and thick, and a foot long. All swell out in
their middle, in which there is an eye for a handle, but in most cases the
handles are somewhat light, in order that the workmen may be able to strike
more powerful blows by the hammer's full weight being thus concentrated.
The iron crowbars are likewise of two kinds, and each kind is pointed at
one end. One is rounded, and with this they pierce to a shaft full of water
when a tunnel reaches to it; the other is flat, and with this they knock out
of the stopes on to the floor, the rocks which have been softened by the fire,
and which cannot be dislodged by the pike. A miner's pike, like a sailor's,
is a long rod having an iron head.
A—ROUND CROWBAR. B—FLAT CROWBAR. C—PIKE.
A—PICK. B—HOE. C—SHOVEL.
The miner's pick differs from a peasant's pick in that the latter is wide
at the bottom and sharp, but the former is pointed. It is used to dig out
ore which is not hard, such as earth. Likewise a hoe and shovel are in no
way different from the common articles, with the one they scrape up earth
and sand, with the other they throw it into vessels.
Now earth, rock, mineral substances and other things dug out with
the pick or hewn out with the “iron tools” are hauled out of the shaft
in buckets, or baskets, or hide buckets; they are drawn out of tunnels in
wheelbarrows or open trucks, and from both they are sometimes carried in
trays.
Buckets are of two kinds, which differ in size, but not in material or
shape. The smaller for the most part hold only about one
larger are generally capable of carrying one-sixth of a
of unchangeable capacity, but they often vary.
with hoops, one of which binds the top and the other the bottom. The hoops are sometimes made of hazel and oak, but these are easily
broken by dashing against the shaft, while those made of iron are more
durable. In the larger buckets the staves are thicker and wider, as also are
both hoops, and in order that the buckets may be more firm and strong,
they have eight iron straps, somewhat broad, four of which run from the
upper hoop downwards, and four from the lower hoop upwards, as if to meet
each other. The bottom of each bucket, both inside and outside, is furnished
with two or three straps of iron, which run from one side of the lower hoop
to the other, but the straps which are on the outside are fixed crosswise. Each bucket has two iron hafts which project above the edge, and it has an
iron semi-circular bail whose lower ends are fixed directly into the hafts,
that the bucket may be handled more easily. Each kind of bucket is much
deeper than it is wide, and each is wider at the top, in order that the material
which is dug out may be the more easily poured in and poured out again. Into the smaller buckets strong boys, and into larger ones men, fill earth
from the bottom of the shaft with hoes; or the other material dug up is
shovelled into them or filled in with their hands, for which reason these men
are called “shovellers.
into the bale; then the buckets are drawn up by machines—the smaller ones,
because of their lighter weight, by machines turned by men, and the larger
ones, being heavier, by the machines turned by horses. Some, in place
of these buckets, substitute baskets which hold just as much, or even more,
since they are lighter than the buckets; some use sacks made of ox-hide
instead of buckets, and the drawing-rope hook is fastened to their iron bale,
usually three of these filled with excavated material are drawn up at the
same time as three are being lowered and three are being filled by boys. The
latter are generally used at Schneeberg and the former at Freiberg.
A—SMALL BUCKET. B—LARGE BUCKET. C—STAVES. D—IRON HOOPS. E—IRON
STRAPS. F—IRON STRAPS ON THE BOTTOM. G—HAFTS. H—IRON BALE. I—HOOK OF
DRAWING-ROPE. K—BASKET. L—HIDE BUCKET OR SACK.
That which we call a
two, such as horses draw. When filled with excavated material it is pushed
It is made as follows: two planks
are chosen about five feet long, one foot wide, and two digits thick; of
each of these the lower side is cut away at the front for a length of one
foot, and at the back for a length of two feet, while the middle is left whole. Then in the front parts are bored circular holes, in order that the ends of an
axle may revolve in them. The intermediate parts of the planks are
perforated twice near the bottom, so as to receive the heads of two little
cleats on which the planks are fixed; and they are also perforated in the
middle, so as to receive the heads of two end-boards, while keys fixed in
these projecting heads strengthen the whole structure. The handles are
made out of the extreme ends of the long planks, and they turn downward
at the ends that they may be grasped more firmly in the hands. The small
wheel, of which there is only one, neither has a nave nor does it revolve
around the axle, but turns around with it. From the felloe, which the
Greeks called
middle of the axle toward the opposite felloe; the axle is square, with
the exception of the ends, each of which is rounded so as to turn in the
opening. A workman draws out this barrow full of earth and rock and draws
it back empty. Miners also have another wheelbarrow, larger than this
one, which they use when they wash earth mixed with tin-stone on to which
a stream has been turned. The front end-board of this one is deeper, in
order that the earth which has been thrown into it may not fall out.
A—SMALL WHEELBARROW. B—LONG PLANKS THEREOF. C—END-BOARDS. D—SMALL
WHEEL. E—LARGER BARROW. F—FRONT END-BOARD THEREOF.
A—RECTANGULAR IRON BANDS ON TRUCK. B—ITS IRON STRAPS. C—IRON AXLE.
D—WOODEN ROLLERS. E—SMALL IRON KEYS. F—LARGE BLUNT IRON PIN.
G—SAME TRUCK UPSIDE DOWN.
The open truck has a capacity half as large again as a wheelbarrow; it is
about four feet long and about two and a half feet wide and deep; and since
its shape is rectangular, it is bound together with three rectangular iron
bands, and besides these there are iron straps on all sides. Two small iron
axles are fixed to the bottom, around the ends of which wooden rollers revolve
on either side; in order that the rollers shall not fall off the immovable
axles, there are small iron keys. A large blunt pin fixed to the bottom of the
truck runs in a groove of a plank in such a way that the truck does not
leave the beaten track. Holding the back part with his hands, the carrier
pushes out the truck laden with excavated material, and pushes it back
again empty. Some people call it a “dog”
makes a noise which seems to them not unlike the bark of a dog. This truck
is used when they draw loads out of the longest tunnels, both because it is
moved more easily and because a heavier load can be placed in it.
Bateas
are generally two feet long and one foot wide. When they have been
filled with ore, especially when but little is dug from the shafts and tunnels,
men either carry them out on their shoulders, or bear them away hung from
A—SMALL BATEA. B—ROPE. C—LARGE BATEA.
their necks. Pliny
which was mined was carried out on men's shoulders, but in truth this
method of carrying forth burdens is onerous, since it causes great fatigue
to a great number of men, and involves a large expenditure for labour; for
this reason it has been rejected and abandoned in our day. The length of
the larger batea is as much as three feet, the width up to a foot and a palm. In these bateas the metallic earth is washed for the purpose of testing it.
Water-vessels differ both in the use to which they are put and in the
material of which they are made; some draw the water from the shafts and
pour it into other things, as dippers; while some of the vessels filled with
water are drawn out by machines, as buckets and bags; some are made of
wood, as the dippers and buckets, and others of hides, as the bags. The
water-buckets, just like the buckets which are filled with dry material, are of
two kinds, the smaller and the larger, but these are unlike the other buckets at
the top, as in this case they are narrower, in order that the water may not be
spilled by being bumped against the timbers when they are being drawn out
of the shafts, especially those considerably inclined. The water is poured
into these buckets by dippers, which are small wooden buckets, but unlike the
water-buckets, they are neither narrow at the top nor bound with iron hoops,
but with hazel,—because there is no necessity for either. The smaller buckets
are drawn up by machines turned by men, the larger ones by those turned by
horses.
A—SMALLER WATER-BUCKET. B—LARGER WATER-BUCKET. C—DIPPER
A—WATER-BAG WHICH TAKES IN WATER BY ITSELF. B—WATER-BAG INTO WHICH WATER
POURS WHEN IT IS PUSHED WITH A SHOVEL.
Our people give the name of water-bags to those very large skins for
carrying water which are made of two, or two and a half, ox-hides. When
these water-bags have undergone much wear and use, first the hair comes
off them and they become bald and shining; after this they become
torn. If the tear is but a small one, a piece of smooth notched stick is put
into the broken part, and the broken bag is bound into its notches on either
side and sewn together; but if it is a large one, they mend it with a piece of
ox-hide. The water-bags are fixed to the hook of a drawing-chain and let
down and dipped into the water, and as soon as they are filled they are drawn
up by the largest machine. They are of two kinds; the one kind take in the
water by themselves; the water pours into the other kind when it is pushed
in a certain way by a wooden shovel.
When the water has been drawn out from the shafts, it is run off in
troughs, or into a hopper, through which it runs into the trough. Likewise
the water which flows along the sides of the tunnels is carried off in drains. These are composed of two hollowed beams joined firmly together, so as to
hold the water which flows through them, and they are covered by planks
all along their course, from the mouth of the tunnel right up to the extreme
end of it, to prevent earth or rock falling into them and obstructing the flow
of the water. If much mud gradually settles in them the planks are raised
and the drains are cleaned out, for they would otherwise become stopped up
and obstructed by this accident. With regard to the trough lying above
A—TROUGH. B—HOPPER.
houses, these are usually hollowed out of single trees. Hoppers are generally
made of four planks, so cut on the lower side and joined together that the
top part of the hopper is broader and the bottom part narrower.
I have sufficiently indicated the nature of the miners' iron tools and
their vessels. I will now explain their machines, which are of three kinds,
that is, hauling machines, ventilating machines, and ladders. By means of
the hauling machines loads are drawn out of the shafts; the ventilating
machines receive the air through their mouths and blow it into shafts or
tunnels, for if this is not done, diggers cannot carry on their labour without
great difficulty in breathing; by the steps of the ladders the miners go
down into the shafts and come up again.
Hauling machines are of varied and diverse forms, some of them being
made with great skill, and if I am not mistaken, they were unknown to the
Ancients. They have been invented in order that water may be drawn from
the depths of the earth to which no tunnels reach, and also the excavated
material from shafts which are likewise not connected with a tunnel, or if
so, only with very long ones. Since shafts are not all of the same depth, there
is a great variety among these hauling machines. Of those by which dry loads
are drawn out of the shafts, five sorts are in the most common use, of which
I will now describe the first. Two timbers a little longer than the shaft are
placed beside it, the one in the front of the shaft, the other at the back. Their extreme ends have holes through which stakes, pointed at the bottom
like wedges, are driven deeply into the ground, so that the timbers may remain
stationary. Into these timbers are mortised the ends of two cross-timbers,
one laid on the right end of the shaft, while the other is far enough
from the left end that between it and that end there remains suitable
space for placing the ladders. In the middle of the cross-timbers, posts are
fixed and secured with iron keys. In hollows at the top of these posts
thick iron sockets hold the ends of the barrel, of which each end projects
beyond the hollow of the post, and is mortised into the end of another
piece of wood a foot and a half long, a palm wide and three digits thick;
the other end of these pieces of wood is seven digits wide, and into each
of them is fixed a round handle, likewise a foot and a half long. A
winding-rope is wound around the barrel and fastened to it at the
middle part. The loop at each end of the rope has an iron hook which
is engaged in the bale of a bucket, and so when the windlass revolves by
being turned by the cranks, a loaded bucket is always being drawn out of the
shaft and an empty one is being sent down into it. Two robust men turn
the windlass, each having a wheelbarrow near him, into which he unloads
the bucket which is drawn up nearest to him; two buckets generally fill a
wheelbarrow; therefore when four buckets have been drawn up, each man
runs his own wheelbarrow out of the shed and empties it. Thus it happens
that if shafts are dug deep, a hillock rises around the shed of the windlass. If a vein is not metal-bearing, they pour out the earth and rock without
discriminating; whereas if it is metal-bearing, they preserve these materials, When they draw up
buckets of water they empty the water through the hopper into a trough,
through which it flows away.
A—TIMBER PLACED IN FRONT OF THE SHAFT. B—TIMBER PLACED AT THE BACK OF THE
SHAFT. C—POINTED STAKES. D—CROSS-TIMBERS. E—POSTS OR THICK PLANKS.
F—IRON SOCKETS. G—BARREL. H—ENDS OF BARREL. I—PIECES OF WOOD.
K—HANDLE. L—DRAWING-ROPE. M—ITS HOOK. N—BUCKET. O—BALE OF THE
BUCKET.
The next kind of machine, which miners employ when the shaft is
deeper, differs from the first in that it possesses a wheel as well as cranks. This windlass, if the load is not being drawn up from a great depth, is turned
by one windlass man, the wheel taking the place of the other man. But if the
depth is greater, then the windlass is turned by three men, the wheel being
substituted for a fourth, because the barrel having been once set in motion,
the rapid revolutions of the wheel help, and it can be turned more easily. Sometimes masses of lead are hung on to this wheel, or are fastened to the
spokes, in order that when it is turned they depress the spokes by their weight
and increase the motion; some persons for the same reason fasten into the
barrel two, three, or four iron rods, and weight their ends with lumps of lead. The windlass wheel differs from the wheel of a carriage and from the one
A—BARREL. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—USUAL CRANK. D—SPOKES OF WHEEL.
E—RIM OF THE SAME WHEEL.
which is turned by water power, for it lacks the buckets of a water-wheel
and it lacks the nave of a carriage wheel. In the place of the nave it has a thick
barrel, in which are mortised the lower ends of the spokes, just as their upper
ends are mortised into the rim. When three windlass men turn this machine,
four straight levers are fixed to the one end of the barrel, and to the
other the crank which is usual in mines, and which is composed of two limbs,
of which the rounded horizontal one is grasped by the hands; the rect
angular limb, which is at right angles to the horizontal one, has mortised in its
lower end the round handle, and in the upper end the end of the barrel. This
crank is worked by one man, the levers by two men, of whom one pulls while
the other pushes; all windlass workers, whatsoever kind of a machine they
may turn, are necessarily robust that they can sustain such great toil.
The third kind of machine is less fatiguing for the workman, while it
raises larger loads; even though it is slower, like all other machines which
have drums, yet it reaches greater depths, even to a depth of 180 feet. It
consists of an upright axle with iron journals at its extremities, which
turn in two iron sockets, the lower of which is fixed in a block set in the
ground and the upper one in the roof beam. This axle has at its lower end a
A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—BLOCK. C—ROOF BEAM. D—WHEEL. E—TOOTHED-DRUM.
F—HORIZONTAL AXLE. G—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. H—DRAWING ROPE.
I—POLE. K—UPRIGHT POSTS. L—CLEATS ON THE WHEEL.
wheel made of thick planks joined firmly together, and at its upper end a
toothed drum; this toothed drum turns another drum made of rundles, which
is on a horizontal axle. A winding-rope is wound around this latter axle,
which turns in iron bearings set in the beams. So that they may not fall, the
two workmen grasp with their hands a pole fixed to two upright posts, and
then pushing the cleats of the lower wheel backward with their feet, they
revolve the machine; as often as they have drawn up and emptied one
bucket full of excavated material, they turn the machine in the opposite
direction and draw out another.
The fourth machine raises burdens once and a half as large again as the
two machines first explained. When it is made, sixteen beams are erected
each forty feet long, one foot thick and one foot wide, joined at the top with
clamps and widely separated at the bottom. The lower ends of all of
them are mortised into separate sills laid flat upon the ground; these sills
are five feet long, a foot and a half wide, and a foot thick. Each beam is also
connected with its sill by a post, whose upper end is mortised into the beam
foot thick, and one foot wide. Thus a circular area is made, the diameter of
which is fifty feet; in the middle of this area a hole is sunk to a depth of ten
feet, and rammed down tight, and in order to give it sufficient firmness, it is
strengthened with contiguous small timbers, through which pins are driven,
for by them the earth around the hole is held so that it cannot fall in. In
the bottom of the hole is planted a sill, three or four feet long and a foot and a
half thick and wide; in order that it may remain fixed, it is set into the small
timbers; in the middle of it is a steel socket in which the pivot of the axle turns. In like manner a timber is mortised into two of the large beams, at the top
beneath the clamps; this has an iron bearing in which the other iron journal of
the axle revolves. Every axle used in mining, to speak of them once for all,
has two iron journals, rounded off on all sides, one fixed with keys in the centre
of each end. That part of this journal which is fixed to the end
of the axle is as broad as the end itself and a digit thick; that which
projects beyond the axle is round and a palm thick, or thicker if necessity
requires; the ends of each miner's axle are encircled and bound by an
iron band to hold the journal more securely. The axle of this machine,
except at the ends, is square, and is forty feet long, a foot and a half thick
and wide. Mortised and clamped into the axle above the lower end are the
ends of four inclined beams; their outer ends support two double cross
beams similarly mortised into them; the inclined beams are eighteen feet
long, three palms thick, and five wide. The two cross-beams are fixed to
the axle and held together by wooden keys so that they will not separate,
and they are twenty-four feet long. Next, there is a drum which is made of
three wheels, of which the middle one is seven feet distant from the upper
one and from the lower one; the wheels have four spokes which are
supported by the same number of inclined braces, the lower ends of which
are joined together round the axle by a clamp; one end of each spoke is
mortised into the axle and the other into the rim. There are rundles all
round the wheels, reaching from the rim of the lowest one to the rim of the
middle one, and likewise from the rim of the middle wheel to the rim of the top
one; around these rundles are wound the drawing-ropes, one between the lowest
wheel and the middle one, the other between the middle and top wheels. The whole of this construction is shaped like a cone, and is covered with a
shingle roof, with the exception of that square part which faces the shaft. Then cross-beams, mortised at both ends, connect a double row of upright
posts; all of these are eighteen feet long, but the posts are one foot thick
and one foot wide, and the cross-beams are three palms thick and wide. There are sixteen posts and eight cross-beams, and upon these cross-beams
are laid two timbers a foot wide and three palms thick, hollowed out to a
width of half a foot and to a depth of five digits; the one is laid upon the
upper cross-beams and the other upon the lower; each is long enough to
reach nearly from the drum of the whim to the shaft. Near the same drum
each timber has a small round wooden roller six digits thick, whose ends are
A—UPRIGHT BEAMS. B—SILLS LAID FLAT UPON THE GROUND. C—POSTS. D—AREA.
E—SILL SET AT THE BOTTOM OF THE HOLE. F—AXLE. G—DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS.
H—DRUM. I—WINDING-ROPES. K—BUCKET. L—SMALL PIECES OF WOOD HANGING
FROM DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. M—SHORT WOODEN BLOCK. N—CHAIN. O—POLE BAR.
P—GRAPPLING HOOK. (Some members mentioned in the text are not shown).Each timber also has a
wooden pulley, which together with its iron axle revolves in holes in the
timber. These pulleys are hollowed out all round, in order that the drawing
rope may not slip out of them, and thus each rope is drawn tight and turns
over its own roller and its own pulley. The iron hook of each rope is engaged
with the bale of the bucket. Further, with regard to the double cross
beams which are mortised to the lower part of the main axle, to each end
of them there is mortised a small piece of wood four feet long. These appear
to hang from the double cross-beams, and a short wooden block is fixed to the
lower part of them, on which a driver sits. Each of these blocks has an iron
clavis which holds a chain, and that in turn a pole-bar. In this way it is
possible for two horses to draw this whim, now this way and now that; turn
by turn one bucket is drawn out of the shaft full and another is let down
into it empty; if, indeed, the shaft is very deep four horses turn the whim. When a bucket has been drawn up, whether filled with dry or wet materials,
it must be emptied, and a workman inserts a grappling hook and overturns
it; this hook hangs on a chain made of three or four links, fixed to a timber.
The fifth machine is partly like the whim, and partly like the third rag
and chain pump, which draws water by balls when turned by horse power,
as I will explain a little later. Like this pump, it is turned by horse
power and has two axles, namely, an upright one—about whose lower end,
which decends into an underground chamber, there is a toothed drum—and a
horizontal one, around which there is a drum made of rundles. It has indeed
two drums around its horizontal axle, similar to those of the big machine, but
smaller, because it draws buckets from a shaft almost two hundred and forty
feet deep. One drum is made of hubs to which cleats are fixed, and
the other is made of rundles; and near the latter is a wheel two
feet deep, measured on all sides around the axle, and one foot wide; and
against this impinges a brake,
that it be stopped. This is necessary when the hide buckets are emptied
after being drawn up full of rock fragments or earth, or as often as water
is poured out of buckets similarly drawn up; for this machine not only
raises dry loads, but also wet ones, just like the other four machines which
I have already described. By this also, timbers fastened on to its winding
chain are let down into a shaft. The brake is made of a piece of wood one
foot thick and half a foot long, projecting from a timber that is suspended
by a chain from one end of a beam which oscillates on an iron pin, this in
turn being supported in the claws of an upright post; and from the other end
of this oscillating beam a long timber is suspended by a chain, and from this
long timber again a short beam is suspended. A workman sits on the short
beam when the machine needs to be stopped, and lowers it; he then inserts
a plank or small stick so that the two timbers are held down and cannot be
raised. In this way the brake is raised, and seizing the drum, presses it
so tightly that sparks often fly from it; the suspended timber to which
the short beam is attached, has several holes in which the chain is
A—TOOTHED DRUM WHICH IS ON THE UPRIGHT AXLE. B—HORIZONTAL AXLE. C—DRUM
WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. D—WHEEL NEAR IT. E—DRUM MADE OF HUBS.
F—BRAKE. G—OSCILLATING BEAM. H—SHORT BEAM. I—HOOK.Above this wheel
there are boards to prevent the water from dripping down and wetting it, for
if it becomes wet the brake will not grip the machine so well. Near the
other drum is a pin from which hangs a chain, in the last link of which there
is an iron hook three feet long; a ring is fixed to the bottom of the bucket,
and this hook, being inserted into it, holds the bucket back so that the water
may be poured out or the fragments of rock emptied.
The miners either carry, draw, or roll down the mountains the ore which
is hauled out of the shafts by these five machines or taken out of the
tunnels. In the winter time our people place a box on a sledge and draw
it down the low mountains with a horse; and in this season they
also fill sacks made of hide and load them on dogs, or place two or
three of them on a small sledge which is higher in the fore part and lower at
the back. Sitting on these sacks, not without risk of his life, the bold
driver guides the sledge as it rushes down the mountain into the valleys with
a stick, which he carries in his hand; when it is rushing down too
quickly he arrests it with the stick, or with the same stick brings it back to
the track when it is turning aside from its proper course. Some of the
A—SLEDGE WITH BOX PLACED ON IT. B—SLEDGE WITH SACKS PLACED ON IT. C—STICK.
D—DOGS WITH PACK-SADDLES. E—PIG-SKIN SACKS TIED TO A ROPE.
and drag them down from the highest mountains, which neither horses,
mules nor asses can climb. Strong dogs, that are trained to bear pack
saddles, carry these sacks when empty into the mountains. When they
are filled with ore, bound with thongs, and fastened to a rope, a man,
winding the rope round his arm or breast, drags them down through the
snow to a place where horses, mules, or asses bearing pack-saddles can
climb. There the ore is removed from the pigskin sacks and put into other
sacks made of double or triple twilled linen thread, and these placed on the
pack-saddles of the beasts are borne down to the works where the ores
are washed or smelted. If, indeed, the horses, mules, or asses are able
to climb the mountains, linen sacks filled with ore are placed on their saddles,
and they carry these down the narrow mountain paths, which are passable
neither by wagons nor sledges, into the valleys lying below the steeper
portions of the mountains. But on the declivity of cliffs which beasts cannot
climb, are placed long open boxes made of planks, with transverse cleats to
hold them together; into these boxes is thrown the ore which has been
brought in wheelbarrows, and when it has run down to the level it is gathered
into sacks, and the beasts either carry it away on their backs or drag it away
after it has been thrown into sledges or wagons. When the drivers bring
ore down steep mountain slopes they use two-wheeled carts, and they drag
behind them on the ground the trunks of two trees, for these by their weight
hold back the heavily-laden carts, which contain ore in their boxes, and check
their descent, and but for these the driver would often be obliged to
bind chains to the wheels. When these men bring down ore from mountains
which do not have such declivities, they use wagons whose beds are twice
as long as those of the carts. The planks of these are so put together that,
when the ore is unloaded by the drivers, they can be raised and taken apart,
for they are only held together by bars. The drivers employed by the owners
of the ore bring down thirty or sixty wagon-loads, and the master of the
works marks on a stick the number of loads for each driver. But some
ore, especially tin, after being taken from the mines, is divided into eight
parts, or into nine, if the owners of the mine give “ninth parts” to the
owners of the tunnel. This is occasionally done by measuring with a bucket,
but more frequently planks are put together on a spot where, with the
addition of the level ground as a base, it forms a hollow box. Each owner
provides for removing, washing, and smelting that portion which has fallen
to him. (Illustration p. 170).
Into the buckets, drawn by these five machines, the boys or men throw
the earth and broken rock with shovels, or they fill them with their hands;
hence they get their name of shovellers. As I have said, the same
machines raise not only dry loads, but also wet ones, or water; but before
I explain the varied and diverse kinds of machines by which miners are wont
A—HORSES WITH PACK-SADDLES. B—LONG BOX PLACED ON THE SLOPE OF THE CLIFF.
C—CLEATS THEREOF. D—WHEELBARROW. E—TWO-WHEELED CART. F—TRUNKS OF
TREES. G—WAGON. H—ORE BEING UNLOADED FROM THE WAGON. I—BARS.
K—MASTER OF THE WORKS MARKING THE NUMBER OF CARTS ON A STICK. L—BOXES
INTO WHICH ARE THROWN THE ORE WHICH HAS TO BE DIVIDED.
chains, pipes, and heavy timbers, should be lowered into deep vertical shafts. A windlass is erected whose barrel has on each end four straight levers; it
is fixed into upright beams and around it is wound a rope, one end of which
is fastened to the barrel and the other to those heavy bodies which are slowly
lowered down by workmen; and if these halt at any part of the shaft they
are drawn up a little way. When these bodies are very heavy, then behind
this windlass another is erected just like it, that their combined strength
may be equal to the load, and that it may be lowered slowly. Sometimes for
the same reason, a pulley is fastened with cords to the roof-beam, and the rope
descends and ascends over it.
A—WINDLASS. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—UPRIGHT BEAMS. D—ROPE. E—PULLEY.
F—TIMBERS TO BE LOWERED.
Water is either hoisted or pumped out of shafts.
It is hoisted up after
being poured into buckets or water-bags; the water-bags are generally
brought up by a machine whose water-wheels have double paddles, while the
buckets are brought up by the five machines already described, although in
certain localities the fourth machine also hauls up water-bags of moderate
size. Water is drawn up also by chains of dippers, or by suction pumps, or
either brought up in buckets or drawn up by chains of dippers or suction
pumps, and when there is much water it is either drawn up in hide bags or
by rag and chain pumps.
First of all, I will describe the machines which draw water by chains
of dippers, of which there are three kinds. For the first, a frame is
made entirely of iron bars: it is two and a half feet high, likewise two and
a half feet long, and in addition one-sixth and one-quarter of a digit
long, one-fourth and one-twenty-fourth of a foot wide. In it there are three
little horizontal iron axles, which revolve in bearings or wide pillows of steel. and also four iron wheels, of which two are made with rundles and the same
number are toothed. Outside the frame, around the lowest axle, is a
wooden fly-wheel, so that it can be more readily turned, and inside the frame
is a smaller drum which is made of eight rundles, one-sixth and one twenty
fourth of a foot long. Around the second axle, which does not project
beyond the frame, and is therefore only two and a half feet and one-twelfth
and one-third part of a digit long, there is on the one side, a smaller toothed
wheel, which has forty-eight teeth, and on the other side a larger drum,
which is surrounded by twelve rundles one-quarter of a foot long. Around the
third axle, which is one inch and one-third thick, is a larger toothed wheel
projecting one foot from the axle in all directions, which has seventy-two
teeth. The teeth of each wheel are fixed in with screws, whose threads are
screwed into threads in the wheel, so that those teeth which are broken can be
replaced by others; both the teeth and rundles are steel. The upper axle
projects beyond the frame, and is so skilfully mortised into the body of
another axle that it has the appearance of being one; this axle proceeds
through a frame made of beams which stands around the shaft, into an iron
fork set in a stout oak timber, and turns on a roller made of pure steel. Around this axle is a drum of the kind possessed by those machines which
draw water by rag and chain; this drum has triple curved iron clamps,
to which the links of an iron chain hook themselves, so that a great weight
cannot tear them away. These links are not whole like the links of other
chains, but each one being curved in the upper part on each side catches the
one which comes next, whereby it presents the appearance of a double chain. At the point where one catches the other, dippers made of iron or brass plates
and holding half a
one hundred links there will be the same number of dippers pouring out water. When the shafts are inclined, the mouths of the dippers project and are covered
on the top that they may not spill out the water, but when the shafts are
vertical the dippers do not require a cover. By fitting the end of the lowest
small axle into the crank, the man who works the crank turns the axle, and at
the same time the drum whose rundles turn the toothed wheel of the second
axle; by this wheel is driven the one that is made of rundles, which
A—IRON FRAME. B—LOWEST AXLE. C—FLY-WHEEL. D—SMALLER DRUM MADE OF
RUNDLES. E—SECOND AXLE. F—SMALLER TOOTHED WHEEL G—LARGER DRUM MADE
OF RUNDLES. H—UPPER AXLE. I—LARGER TOOTHED WHEEL. K—BEARINGS.
L—PILLOW. M—FRAMEWORK. N—OAK TIMBER O—SUPPORT OF IRON BEARING
P—ROLLER Q—UPPER DRUM. R—CLAMPS. S—CHAIN. T—LINKS. V—DIPPERS
X—CRANK. Y—LOWER DRUM OR BALANCE WEIGHT.
which the clamps are fixed. In this way the chain, together with the empty
dippers, is slowly let down, close to the footwall side of the vein, into the sump
to the bottom of the balance drum, which turns on a little iron axle, both ends
of which are set in a thick iron bearing. The chain is rolled round the drum
and the dippers fill with water; the chain being drawn up close to the hanging
wall side, carries the dippers filled with water above the drum of the upper
axle. Thus there are always three of the dippers inverted and pouring
water into a lip, from which it flows away into the drain of the tunnel. This
machine is less useful, because it cannot be constructed without great expense,
and it carries off but little water and is somewhat slow, as also are other
machines which possess a great number of drums.
A—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. B—AXLE. C—DOUBLE CHAIN. D—LINK
OF DOUBLE CHAIN. E—DIPPERS. F—SIMPLE CLAMPS. G—CLAMP WITH TRIPLE CURVES.
The next machine of this kind, described in a few words by Vitruvius,
more rapidly brings up dippers, holding a
much water is continually flowing. This machine has no iron frame nor
drums, but has around its axle a wooden wheel which is turned by treading;
the axle, since it has no drum, does not last very long. In other respects
this pump resembles the first kind, except that it differs from it by having
a double chain. Clamps should be fixed to the axle of this machine, just as
to the drum of the other one; some of these are made simple and others
with triple curves, but each kind has four barbs.
The third machine, which far excels the two just described, is made
when a running stream can be diverted to a mine; the impetus of the
stream striking the paddles revolves a water-wheel in place of the wheel
turned by treading. With regard to the axle, it is like the second machine,
A—WHEEL WHOSE PADDLES ARE TURNED BY THE FORCE OF THE STREAM. B—AXLE.
C—DRUM OF AXLE, TO WHICH CLAMPS ARE FIXED. D—CHAIN. E—LINK. F—DIPPERS.
G—BALANCE DRUM.
but the drum which is round the axle, the chain, and the balance drum, are
like the first machine. It has much more capacious dippers than even the
second machine, but since the dippers are frequently broken, miners rarely
use these machines; for they prefer to lift out small quantities of water by
the first five machines or to draw it up by suction pumps, or, if there is
water-bags.
Enough, then, of the first sort of pumps.
I will now explain the other,
that is the pump which draws, by means of pistons, water which has been
raised by suction. Of these there are seven varieties, which though they
differ from one another in structure, nevertheless confer the same benefits
upon miners, though some to a greater degree than others. The first pump
is made as follows. Over the sump is placed a flooring, through which a
pipe—or two lengths of pipe, one of which is joined into the other—are let
down to the bottom of the sump; they are fastened with pointed iron clamps
driven in straight on both sides, so that the pipes may remain fixed. The
lower end of the lower pipe is enclosed in a trunk two feet deep; this trunk,
hollow like the pipe, stands at the bottom of the sump, but the lower opening
of it is blocked with a round piece of wood; the trunk has perforations
round about, through which water flows into it. If there is one length of
pipe, then in the upper part of the trunk which has been hollowed out there is
enclosed a box of iron, copper, or brass, one palm deep, but without a bottom,
and a rounded valve so tightly closes it that the water, which has been drawn
up by suction, cannot run back; but if there are two lengths of pipe, the
box is enclosed in the lower pipe at the point of junction. An opening or a
spout in the upper pipe reaches to the drain of the tunnel. Thus the work
man, eager at his labour, standing on the flooring boards, pushes the piston
down into the pipe and draws it out again. At the top of the piston-rod is a
hand-bar and the bottom is fixed in a shoe; this is the name given to the
leather covering, which is almost cone-shaped, for it is so stitched that it is
tight at the lower end, where it is fixed to the piston-rod which it surrounds,
but in the upper end where it draws the water it is wide open. Or else an
iron disc one digit thick is used, or one of wood six digits thick, each of which
is far superior to the shoe. The disc is fixed by an iron key which pene
trates through the bottom of the piston-rod, or it is screwed on to the
rod; it is round, with its upper part protected by a cover, and has five or
six openings, either round or oval, which taken together present a star-like
appearance; the disc has the same diameter as the inside of the pipe,
so that it can be just drawn up and down in it. When the workman draws
the piston up, the water which has passed in at the openings of the disc,
whose cover is then closed, is raised to the hole or little spout, through which
it flows away; then the valve of the box opens, and the water which has
passed into the trunk is drawn up by the suction and rises into the pipe;
but when the workman pushes down the piston, the valve closes and allows
the disc again to draw in the water.
The piston of the second pump is more easily moved up and down.
When
this pump is made, two beams are placed over the sump, one near the right side
of it, and the other near the left. To one beam a pipe is fixed with iron clamps;
to the other is fixed either the forked branch of a tree or a timber cut out at
the top in the shape of a fork, and through the prongs of the fork a round
hole is bored. Through a wide round hole in the middle of a sweep passes
A—SUMP. B—PIPES. C—FLOORING. D—TRUNK. E—PERFORATIONS OF TRUNK.
F—VALVE. G—SPOUT. H—PISTON-ROD. I—HAND-BAR OF PISTON. K—SHOE. L—DISC
WITH ROUND OPENINGS. M—DISC WITH OVAL OPENINGS. N—COVER. O—THIS MAN IS
BORING LOGS AND MAKING THEM INTO PIPES. P—BORER WITH AUGER. Q—WIDER BORER.
A—ERECT TIMBER. B—AXLE. C—SWEEP WHICH TURNS ABOUT THE AXLE. D—PISTON
ROD. E—CROSS-BAR. F—RING WITH WHICH TWO PIPES ARE GENERALLY JOINED.
an iron axle, so fastened in the holes in the fork that it remains fixed, and
the sweep turns on this axle. In one end of the sweep the upper end of a
piston-rod is fastened with an iron key; at the other end a cross-bar is also
fixed, to the extreme ends of which are handles to enable it to be held more
firmly in the hands. And so when the workman pulls the cross-bar upward,
he forces the piston into the pipe; when he pushes it down again he draws
the piston out of the pipe; and thus the piston carries up the water which
has been drawn in at the openings of the disc, and the water flows away through
the spout into the drains. This pump, like the next one, is identical with
the first in all that relates to the piston, disc, trunk, box, and valve.
The third pump is not unlike the one just described, but in place of
one upright, posts are erected with holes at the top, and in these holes the
ends of an axle revolve. To the middle of this axle are fixed two wooden
bars, to the end of one of which is fixed the piston, and to the end of the
other a heavy piece of wood, but short, so that it can pass between the two
posts and may move backward and forward. When the workman pushes
this piece of wood, the piston is drawn out of the pipe; when it returns by its
A—POSTS. B—AXLE. C—WOODEN BARS. D—PISTON ROD. E—SHORT PIECE OF WOOD.
F—DRAIN. G—THIS MAN IS DIVERTING THE WATER WHICH IS FLOWING OUT OF THE DRAIN,
TO PREVENT IT FROM FLOWING INTO THE TRENCHES WHICH ARE BEING DUG.
own weight, the piston is pushed in. In this way, the water which the pipe
contains is drawn through the openings in the disc and emptied by the piston
through the spout into the drain. There are some who place a hand-bar
underneath in place of the short piece of wood. This pump, as also the last
before described, is less generally used among miners than the others.
The fourth kind is not a simple pump but a duplex one.
It is made as
follows. A rectangular block of beechwood, five feet long, two and a half
feet wide, and one and a half feet thick, is cut in two and hollowed out wide
and deep enough so that an iron axle with cranks can revolve in it. The axle
is placed between the two halves of this box, and the first part of the axle,
which is in contact with the wood, is round and the straight end forms a
journal. Then the axle is bent down the depth of a foot and again bent so
as to continue straight, and at this point a round piston-rod hangs from it;
next it is bent up as far as it was bent down; then it continues a little way
straight again, and then it is bent up a foot and again continues straight,
at which point a second round piston-rod is hung from it; afterward it
A—BOX B—LOWER PART OF BOX. C—UPPER PART OF SAME. D—CLAMPS. E—PIPES
BELOW THE BOX. F—COLUMN PIPE FIXED ABOVE THE BOX. G—IRON AXLE. H—PISTON
RODS. I—WASHERS TO PROTECT THE BEARINGS. K—LEATHERS. L—EYES IN THE AXLE.
M—RODS WHOSE ENDS ARE WEIGHTED WITH LUMPS OF LEAD. N—CRANK.
(
end of it, which also acts as a journal, is straight. This part which protrudes
through the wood is protected by two iron washers in the shape of discs, to
which are fastened two leather washers of the same shape and size, in order
to prevent the water which is drawn into the box from gushing out. These
discs are around the axle; one of them is inside the box and the other
outside. Beyond this, the end of the axle is square and has two eyes, in
which are fixed two iron rods, and to their ends are weighted lumps of lead,
so that the axle may have a greater propensity to revolve; this axle can
easily be turned when its end has been mortised in a crank. The upper part
of the box is the shallower one, and the lower part the deeper, the upper
part is bored out once straight down through the middle, the diameter of the
opening being the same as the outside diameter of the column pipe; the
lower box has, side by side, two apertures also bored straight down;
these are for two pipes, the space of whose openings therefore is twice as
great as that of the upper part; this lower part of the box is placed
upon the two pipes, which are fitted into it at their upper ends, and the
lower ends of these pipes penetrate into trunks which stand in the
sump. These trunks have perforations through which the water flows into
them. The iron axle is placed in the inside of the box, then the two iron
piston-rods which hang from it are let down through the two pipes to the depth
of a foot. Each piston has a screw at its lower end which holds a thick iron
plate, shaped like a disc and full of openings, covered with a leather, and
similarly to the other pump it has a round valve in a little box. Then the
upper part of the box is placed upon the lower one and properly fitted to it on
every side, and where they join they are bound by wide thick iron plates, and
held with small wide iron wedges, which are driven in and are fastened with
clamps. The first length of column pipe is fixed into the upper part of the
box, and another length of pipe extends it, and a third again extends this one,
and so on, another extending on another, until the uppermost one reaches the
drain of the tunnel. When the crank worker turns the axle, the pistons in
turn draw the water through their discs; since this is done quickly, and
since the area of openings of the two pipes over which the box is set, is twice
as large as the opening of the column pipe which rises from the box, and since
the pistons do not lift the water far up, the impetus of the water from the
lower pipes forces it to rise and flow out of the column pipe into the drain of
the tunnel. Since a wooden box frequently cracks open, it is better to
make it of lead or copper or brass.
The fifth kind of pump is still less simple, for it is composed of two or
three pumps whose pistons are raised by a machine turned by men, for each
piston-rod has a tappet which is raised, each in succession, by two cams on
a barrel; two or four strong men turn it. When the pistons descend into
the pipes their discs draw the water; when they are raised these force the
water out through the pipes. The upper part of each of these piston-rods,
which is half a foot square, is held in a slot in a cross-beam; the lower part,
which drops down into the pipes, is made of another piece of wood and is
round. Each of these three pumps is composed of two lengths of pipe fixed
A—TAPPETS OF PISTON-RODS. B—CAMS OF THE BARREL. C—SQUARE UPPER PARTS
OF PISTON-RODS. D—LOWER ROUNDED PARTS OF PISTON-RODS. E—CROSS-BEAMS.
F—PIPES. G—APERTURES OF PIPES. H—TROUGH. (Fifth kind of pump—see p. 181).
A—WATER-WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—TRUNK ON WHICH THE LOWEST PIPE STANDS.
D—BASKET SURROUNDING TRUNK. (Sixth kind of pump—see p. 184.)
This machine draws the water higher, as much as
twenty-four feet. If the diameter of the pipes is large, only two pumps are
made; if smaller, three, so that by either method the volume of water is the
same. This also must be understood regarding the other machines and
their pipes. Since these pumps are composed of two lengths of pipe, the
little iron box having the iron valve which I described before, is not enclosed
in a trunk, but is in the lower length of pipe, at that point where it joins
the upper one; thus the rounded part of the piston-rod is only as long as
the upper length of pipe; but I will presently explain this more clearly.
The sixth kind of pump would be just the same as the fifth were it not
that it has an axle instead of a barrel, turned not by men but by a water
wheel, which is revolved by the force of water striking its buckets. Since water-power far exceeds human strength, this machine draws water
through its pipes by discs out of a shaft more than one hundred feet deep. The bottom of the lowest pipe, set in the sump, not only of this pump but
also of the others, is generally enclosed in a basket made of wicker-work, to
prevent wood shavings and other things being sucked in. (See p. 183.)
The seventh kind of pump, invented ten years ago, which is the most
ingenious, durable, and useful of all, can be made without much expense. It
is composed of several pumps, which do not, like those last described, go down
into the shaft together, but of which one is below the other, for if there are
three, as is generally the case, the lower one lifts the water of the sump and
pours it out into the first tank; the second pump lifts again from that tank
into a second tank, and the third pump lifts it into the drain of the tunnel. A wheel fifteen feet high raises the piston-rods of all these pumps at the same
time and causes them to drop together. The wheel is made to revolve by
paddles, turned by the force of a stream which has been diverted to the
mountain. The spokes of the water-wheel are mortised in an axle six feet
long and one foot thick, each end of which is surrounded by an iron band,
but in one end there is fixed an iron journal; to the other end is attached an
iron like this journal in its posterior part, which is a digit thick and as wide
as the end of the axle itself. Then the iron extends horizontally, being
rounded and about three digits in diameter, for the length of a foot, and
serves as a journal; thence, it bends to a height of a foot in a curve,
like the horn of the moon, after which it again extends straight out for
one foot; thus it comes about that this last straight portion, as it
revolves in an orbit becomes alternately a foot higher and a foot lower than
the first straight part. From this round iron crank there hangs the first flat
pump-rod, for the crank is fixed in a perforation in the upper end of this flat
pump-rod just as the iron key of the first set of “claws” is fixed into the
lower end. In order to prevent the pump-rod from slipping off it, as it
could easily do, and that it may be taken off when necessary, its opening
is wider than the corresponding part of the crank, and it is fastened on
both sides by iron keys. To prevent friction, the ends of the pump-rods are
protected by iron plates or intervening leathers. This first pump-rod is
about twelve feet long, the other two are twenty-six feet, and each is a palm
A—SHAFT. B—BOTTOM PUMP. C—FIRST TANK. D—SECOND PUMP. E—SECOND TANK.
F—THIRD PUMP. G—TROUGH. H—THE IRON SET IN THE AXLE. I—FIRST PUMP ROD.
K—SECOND PUMP ROD. L—THIRD PUMP ROD. M—FIRST PISTON ROD. N—SECOND
PISTON ROD. O—THIRD PISTON ROD. P—LITTLE AXLES. Q—“CLAWS.”The sides of each pump-rod are covered and
protected by iron plates, which are held on by iron screws, so that a part
which has received damage can be repaired. In the “claws” is set a
small round axle, a foot and a half long and two palms thick. The ends are
encircled by iron bands to prevent the iron journals which revolve in the
iron bearings of the wood from slipping out of it.
the wooden “claws” extend two feet, with a width and thickness of six
digits; they are three palms distant from each other, and both the inner and
outer sides are covered with iron plates. Two rounded iron keys two digits
thick are immovably fixed into the claws. The one of these keys per
forates the lower end of the first pump-rod, and the upper end of the second
pump-rod which is held fast. The other key, which is likewise immovable,
perforates the iron end of the first piston-rod, which is bent in a curve and
is immovable. Each such piston-rod is thirteen feet long and three digits
thick, and descends into the first pipe of each pump to such depth that its
disc nearly reaches the valve-box. When it descends into the pipe, the
water, penetrating through the openings of the disc, raises the leather, and
when the piston-rod is raised the water presses down the leather, and this
supports its weight; then the valve closes the box as a door closes an
entrance. The pipes are joined by two iron bands, one palm wide, one
outside the other, but the inner one is sharp all round that it may
fit into each pipe and hold them together. Although at the present time
pipes lack the inner band, still they have nipples by which they are joined
together, for the lower end of the upper one holds the upper end of the lower
one, each being hewn away for a length of seven digits, the former inside, the
latter outside, so that the one can fit into the other. When the piston-rod
descends into the first pipe, that valve which I have described is closed;
when the piston-rod is raised, the valve is opened so that the water can run
in through the perforations. Each one of such pumps is composed of two
lengths of pipe, each of which is twelve feet long, and the inside diameter is
seven digits. The lower one is placed in the sump of the shaft, or in a tank,
and its lower end is blocked by a round piece of wood, above which there are
six perforations around the pipe through which the water flows into it. The
upper part of the upper pipe has a notch one foot deep and a palm wide,
through which the water flows away into a tank or trough. Each tank is
two feet long and one foot wide and deep. There is the same number of
axles, “claws,” and rods of each kind as there are pumps; if there are three
pumps, there are only two tanks, because-the sump of the shaft and the drain
of the tunnel take the place of two. The following is the way this machine
draws water from a shaft. The wheel being turned raises the first pump
rod, and the pump-rod raises the first “claw,” and thus also the second
pump-rod, and the first piston-rod; then the second pump-rod raises the
second “claw,” and thus the third pump-rod and the second piston-rod;
then the third pump-rod raises the third “claw” and the third piston-rod,
no use in the last pump. In turn, when the first pump-rod descends, each
set of “claws” is lowered, each pump-rod and each piston-rod. And by this
system, at the same time the water is lifted into the tanks and drained out of
them; from the sump at the bottom of the shaft it is drained out, and it
is poured into the trough of the tunnel. Further, around the main axle there
may be placed two water wheels, if the river supplies enough water to turn
them, and from the back part of each round iron crank, one or two pump-rods
can be hung, each of which can move the piston-rods of three pumps. Lastly, it is necessary that the shafts from which the water is pumped out in
pipes should be vertical, for as in the case of the hauling machines, all pumps
which have pipes do not draw the water so high if the pipes are inclined in
inclined shafts, as if they are placed vertically in vertical shafts.
If the river does not supply enough water-power to turn the last
described pump, which happens because of the nature of the locality
or occurs during the summer season when there are daily droughts, a
machine is built with a wheel so low and light that the water of ever so little a
A—WATER WHEEL OF UPPER MACHINE. B—ITS PUMP. C—ITS TROUGH. D—WHEEL OF
LOWER MACHINE. E—ITS PUMP. F—RACE.This water, falling into a race, runs therefrom on to a
second high and heavy wheel of a lower machine, whose pump lifts the water
out of a deep shaft. Since, however, the water of so small a stream cannot
alone revolve the lower water-wheel, the axle of the latter is turned at the start
with a crank worked by two men, but as soon as it has poured out into a pool
the water which has been drawn up by the pumps, the upper wheel draws
up this water by its own pump, and pours it into the race, from which it
flows on to the lower water-wheel and strikes its buckets. So both this
water from the mine, as well as the water of the stream, being turned down
the races on to that subterranean wheel of the lower machine, turns it, and
water is pumped out of the deeper part of the shaft by means of two or
three pumps.
If the stream supplies enough water straightway to turn a higher and
heavier water-wheel, then a toothed drum is fixed to the other end of the
axle, and this turns the drum made of rundles on another axle set below it. To each end of this lower axle there is fitted a crank of round iron curved
like the horns of the moon, of the kind employed in machines of this
description. This machine, since it has rows of pumps on each side,
draws great quantities of water.
Of the rag and chain pumps there are six kinds known to us, of which
the first is made as follows: A cave is dug under the surface of earth or in a
tunnel, and timbered on all sides by stout posts and planks, to prevent either
the men from being crushed or the machine from being broken by its collapse. In this cave, thus timbered, is placed a water-wheel fitted to an angular axle.
The iron journals of the axle revolve in iron pillows, which are held in timbers
of sufficient strength. The wheel is generally twenty-four feet high,
occasionally thirty, and in no way different from those which are made for
grinding corn, except that it is a little narrower. The axle has on one side
a drum with a groove in the middle of its circumference, to which are fixed
many four-curved iron clamps. In these clamps catch the links of the chain,
which is drawn through the pipes out of the sump, and which again falls,
through a timbered opening, right down to the bottom into the sump to a
balancing drum. There is an iron band around the small axle of the
balancing drum, each journal of which revolves in an iron bearing fixed to a
timber. The chain turning about this drum brings up the water by the
balls through the pipes. Each length of pipe is encircled and protected by
five iron bands, a palm wide and a digit thick, placed at equal distances from
each other; the first band on the pipe is shared in common with the
preceding length of pipe into which it is fitted, the last band with the succeed
ing length of pipe which is fitted into it. Each length of pipe, except the
first, is bevelled on the outer circumference of the upper end to a distance
of seven digits and for a depth of three digits, in order that it may be inserted
into the length of pipe which goes before it; each, except the last, is reamed
out on the inside of the lower end to a like distance, but to the depth
A—UPPER AXLE. B—WHEEL WHOSE BUCKETS THE FORCE OF THE STREAM STRIKES.
C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—SECOND AXLE. E—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. F—CURVED
ROUND IRONS. G—ROWS OF PUMPS.
follows. And each length of pipe is fixed with iron clamps to the timbers of
the shaft, that it may remain stationary. Through this continuous series
of pipes, the water is drawn by the balls of the chain up out of the sump as
far as the tunnel, where it flows out into the drains through an aperture in
the highest pipe. The balls which lift the water are connected by the iron
links of the chain, and are six feet distant from one another; they are made
of the hair of a horse's tail sewn into a covering to prevent it from being
pulled out by the iron clamps on the drum; the balls are of such size that
one can be held in each hand. If this machine is set up on the surface of
the earth, the stream which turns the water-wheel is led away through open
air ditches; if in a tunnel, the water is led away through the subterranean
drains. The buckets of the water-wheel, when struck by the impact of the
stream, move forward and turn the wheel, together with the drum, whereby
the chain is wound up and the balls expel the water through the pipes. If
the wheel of this machine is twenty-four feet in diameter, it draws water from a
shaft two hundred and ten feet deep; if thirty feet in diameter, it will draw
water from a shaft two hundred and forty feet deep. But such work requires
a stream with greater water-power.
The next pump has two drums, two rows of pipes and two drawing
chains whose balls lift out the water; otherwise they are like the last pump. This pump is usually built when an excessive amount of water flows into the
sump. These two pumps are turned by water-power; indeed, water draws
water.
The following is the way of indicating the increase or decrease of the
water in an underground sump, whether it is pumped by this rag and chain
pump or by the first pump, or the third, or some other. From a beam which
is as high above the shaft as the sump is deep, is hung a cord, to one
end of which there is fastened a stone, the other end being attached to a
plank. The plank is lowered down by an iron wire fastened to the
other end; when the stone is at the mouth of the shaft the plank
is right down the shaft in the sump, in which water it floats. This
plank is so heavy that it can drag down the wire and its iron clasp and
hook, together with the cord, and thus pull the stone upwards. Thus, as
the water decreases, the plank decends and the stone is raised; on the
contrary, when the water increases the plank rises and the stone is lowered. When the stone nearly touches the beam, since this indicates that the water
has been exhausted from the sump by the pump, the overseer in charge of the
machine closes the water-race and stops the water-wheel: when the stone
nearly touches the ground at the side of the shaft, this indicates that the
sump is full of water which has again collected in it, because the water raises
the plank and thus the stone drags back both the rope and the iron wire;
then the overseer opens the water-race, whereupon the water of the stream
again strikes the buckets of the water-wheel and turns the pump. As
workmen generally cease from their labours on the yearly holidays, and
A—WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—JOURNALS. D—PILLOWS. E—DRUM. F—CLAMPS.
G—DRAWING-CHAIN. H—TIMBERS. I—BALLS. K—PIPE. L—RACE OF STREAM.
the pump, if necessary, must continue to draw water all the time, a bell rings
aloud continuously, indicating that this pump, or any other kind, is uninjured
and nothing is preventing its turning. The bell is hung by a cord from
a small wooden axle held in the timbers which stand over the shaft, and
a second long cord whose upper end is fastened to the small axle is lowered
into the shaft; to the lower end of this cord is fastened a piece of wood;
and as often as a cam on the main axle strikes it, so often does the bell ring
and give forth a sound.
The third pump of this kind is employed by miners when no river capable
of turning a water-wheel can be diverted, and it is made as follows. They
first dig a chamber and erect strong timbers and planks to prevent the sides
from falling in, which would overwhelm the pump and kill the men. The
roof of the chamber is protected with contiguous timbers, so arranged that
the horses which pull the machine can travel over it. Next they again set up
sixteen beams forty feet long and one foot wide and thick, joined by clamps
at the top and spreading apart at the bottom, and they fit the lower end
of each beam into a separate sill laid flat on the ground, and join these by a
post; thus there is created a circular area of which the diameter is fifty
feet. Through an opening in the centre of this area there descends an
upright square axle, forty-five feet long and a foot and a half wide and thick;
its lower pivot revolves in a socket in a block laid flat on the ground in the
chamber, and the upper pivot revolves in a bearing in a beam which is mor
tised into two beams at the summit beneath the clamps; the lower pivot is
seventeen feet distant from either side of the chamber,
rear. At the height of a foot above its lower end, the axle has a toothed wheel,
the diameter of which is twenty-two feet. This wheel is composed of four
spokes and eight rim pieces; the spokes are fifteen feet long and three
quarters of a foot wide and thick
the other in the two rims where they are joined together. These rims are three
quarters of a foot thick and one foot wide, and from them there rise and
project upright teeth three-quarters of a foot high, half a foot wide, and six
digits thick. These teeth turn a second horizontal axle by means of a drum
composed of twelve rundles, each three feet long and six digits wide and
thick. This drum, being turned, causes the axle to revolve, and around this
axle there is a drum having iron clamps with four-fold curves in which catch
the links of a chain, which draws water through pipes by means of balls. The iron journals of this horizontal axle revolve on pillows which are set in
the centre of timbers. Above the roof of the chamber there are mortised
into the upright axle the ends of two beams which rise obliquely; the upper
ends of these beams support double cross-beams, likewise mortised to the
axle. In the outer end of each cross-beam there is mortised a small wooden
piece which appears to hang down; in this wooden piece there is similarly
A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—TOOTHED WHEEL. C—TEETH. D—HORIZONTAL AXLE.
E—DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. F—SECOND DRUM. G—DRAWING-CHAIN.
H—THE BALLS.
a chain, and this chain again a pole-bar. This machine, which draws water
from a shaft two hundred and forty feet deep, is worked by thirty-two horses;
eight of them work for four hours, and then these rest for twelve hours, and
the same number take their place. This kind of machine is employed at the
foot of the HarzFurther, if
necessity arises, several pumps of this kind are often built for the purpose of
mining one vein, but arranged differently in different localities varying
according to the depth. At Schemnitz, in the Carpathian mountains, there
are three pumps, of which the lowest lifts water from the lowest sump to
the first drains, through which it flows into the second sump; the intermediate
one lifts from the second sump to the second drain, from which it flows into
the third sump; and the upper one lifts it to the drains of the tunnel, through
which it flows away. This system of three machines of this kind is turned
by ninety-six horses; these horses go down to the machines by an inclined
A—AXLE. B—DRUM. C—DRAWING-CHAIN. D—BALLS. E—CLAMPS.
The
lowest of these machines is set in a deep place, which is distant from the
surface of the ground 660 feet.
The fourth species of pump belongs to the same genera, and is made
as follows. Two timbers are erected, and in openings in them, the ends of a
barrel revolve. Two or four strong men turn the barrel, that is to say, one
or two pull the cranks, and one or two push them, and in this way help the
others; alternately another two or four men take their place. The barrel
of this machine, just like the horizontal axle of the other machines, has a
drum whose iron clamps catch the links of a drawing-chain. Thus water
is drawn through the pipes by the balls from a depth of forty-eight feet. Human strength cannot draw water higher than this, because such very
heavy labour exhausts not only men, but even horses; only water-power
can drive continuously a drum of this kind. Several pumps of this kind, as
of the last, are often built for the purpose of mining on a single vein,
but they are arranged differently for different positions and depths.
A—AXLES. B—LEVERS. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES.
E—DRUM IN WHICH IRON CLAMPS ARE FIXED.
The fifth pump of this kind is partly like the third and partly like the
fourth, because it is turned by strong men like the last, and like the third
it has two axles and three drums, though each axle is horizontal. The
journals of each axle are so fitted in the pillows of the beams that they cannot
fly out; the lower axle has a crank at one end and a toothed drum at the
other end; the upper axle has at one end a drum made of rundles, and at
the other end, a drum to which are fixed iron clamps, in which the links of a
chain catch in the same way as before, and from the same depth, draw water
through pipes by means of balls. This revolving machine is turned by two
pairs of men alternately, for one pair stands working while the other sits
taking a rest; while they are engaged upon the task of turning, one pulls
the crank and the other pushes, and the drums help to make the pump turn
more easily.
The sixth pump of this kind likewise has two axles.
At one end of the
lower axle is a wheel which is turned by two men treading, this is twenty
three feet high and four feet wide, so that one man may stand alongside
the other. At the other end of this axle is a toothed wheel.
The upper
axle has two drums and one wheel; the first drum is made of rundles, and to
the other there are fixed the iron clamps. The wheel is like the one on the
second machine which is chiefly used for drawing earth and broken rock
out of shafts. The treaders, to prevent themselves from falling, grasp in
their hands poles which are fixed to the inner sides of the wheel. When
they turn this wheel, the toothed drum being made to revolve, sets in motion
the other drum which is made of rundles, by which means again the links
of the chain catch to the cleats of the third drum and draw water through
pipes by means of balls,—from a depth of sixty-six feet.
But the largest machine of all those which draw water is the one which
follows. First of all a reservoir is made in a timbered chamber; this reser
voir is eighteen feet long and twelve feet wide and high. Into this reservoir
a stream is diverted through a water-race or through the tunnel; it has two
entrances and the same number of gates. Levers are fixed to the upper part
of these gates, by which they can be raised and let down again, so that by one
way the gates are opened and in the other way closed. Beneath the openings
are two plank troughs which carry the water flowing from the reservoir, and
pour it on to the buckets of the water-wheel, the impact of which turns the
wheel. The shorter trough carries the water, which strikes the buckets
that turn the wheel toward the reservoir, and the longer trough carries
the water which strikes those buckets that turn the wheel in the opposite
direction. The casing or covering of the wheel is made of joined boards to
which strips are affixed on the inner side. The wheel itself is thirty-six feet
in diameter, and is mortised to an axle, and it has, as I have already said,
two rows of buckets, of which one is set the opposite way to the other, so
that the wheel may be turned toward the reservoir or in the opposite
A—AXLES. B—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. C—TOOTHED WHEEL.
D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. E—DRUM TO WHICH ARE FIXED IRON CLAMPS.
F—SECOND WHEEL. G—BALLS.The axle is square and is thirty-five feet long and two feet thick
and wide. Beyond the wheel, at a distance of six feet, the axle has four hubs,
one foot wide and thick, each one of which is four feet distant from the next
to these hubs are fixed by iron nails as many pieces of wood as are necessary
to cover the hubs, and, in order that the wood pieces may fit tight, they are
broader on the outside and narrower on the inside; in this way a drum is
made, around which is wound a chain to whose ends are hooked leather bags. The reason why a drum of this kind is made, is that the axle may be kept in
good condition, because this drum when it becomes worn away by use can
be repaired easily. Further along the axle, not far from the end, is another
drum one foot broad, projecting two feet on all sides around the axle. And
to this, when occasion demands, a brake is applied forcibly and holds back
the machine; this kind of brake I have explained before. Near the axle,
in place of a hopper, there is a floor with a considerable slope, having in
front of the shaft a width of fifteen feet and the same at the back; at each
side of it there is a stout post carrying an iron chain which has a large hook. Five men operate this machine; one lets down the doors which close the
reservoir gates, or by drawing down the levers, opens the water-races; this
man, who is the director of this machine, stands in a hanging cage beside the
reservoir. When one bag has been drawn out nearly as far as the sloping
floor, he closes the water gate in order that the wheel may be stopped; when
the bag has been emptied he opens the other water gate, in order that the
other set of buckets may receive the water and drive the wheel in the opposite
direction. If he cannot close the water-gate quickly enough, and the water
continues to flow, he calls out to his comrade and bids him raise the brake
upon the drum and stop the wheel. Two men alternately empty the bags,
one standing on that part of the floor which is in front of the shaft,
and the other on that part which is at the back. When the bag has been
nearly drawn up—of which fact a certain link of the chain gives warning—the
man who stands on the one part of the floor, catches a large iron hook in one
link of the chain, and pulls out all the subsequent part of the chain toward
the floor, where the bag is emptied by the other man. The object of this
hook is to prevent the chain, by its own weight, from pulling down the
other empty bag, and thus pulling the whole chain from its axle and
dropping it down the shaft. His comrade in the work, seeing that the bag
filled with water has been nearly drawn out, calls to the director of the
machine and bids him close the water of the tower so that there will be time
to empty the bag; this being emptied, the director of the machine first of
all slightly opens the other water-gate of the tower to allow the end of the
chain, together with the empty bag, to be started into the shaft again, and
then opens entirely the water-gates. When that part of the chain which
has been pulled on to the floor has been wound up again, and has been let
down over the shaft from the drum, he takes out the large hook which was
fastened into a link of the chain. The fifth man stands in a sort of cross-cut
beside the sump, that he may not be hurt, if it should happen that a link
A—RESERVOIR. B—RACE. C, D—LEVERS. E, F—TROUGHS UNDER THE WATER GATES.
G, H—DOUBLE ROWS OF BUCKETS. I—AXLE. K—LARGER DRUM. L—DRAWING-CHAIN.
M—BAG. N—HANGING CAGE. O—MAN WHO DIRECTS THE MACHINE. P, Q—MEN
EMPTYING BAGS.
the bag with a wooden shovel, and fills it with water if it fails to take
in the water spontaneously. In these days, they sew an iron band into the
top of each bag that it may constantly remain open, and when lowered into
the sump may fill itself with water, and there is no need for a man to act as
governor of the bags. Further, in these days, of those men who stand on
the floor the one empties the bags, and the other closes the gates of the
reservoir and opens them again, and the same man usually fixes the large
hook in the link of the chain. In this way, three men only are employed in
working this machine; or even—since sometimes the one who empties the
bag presses the brake which is raised against the other drum and thus stops
the wheel—two men take upon themselves the whole labour.
But enough of haulage machines; I will now speak of ventilating
machines. If a shaft is very deep and no tunnel reaches to it, or no drift
from another shaft connects with it, or when a tunnel is of great length and
no shaft reaches to it, then the air does not replenish itself. In such a case it
weighs heavily on the miners, causing them to breathe with difficulty, and
sometimes they are even suffocated, and burning lamps are also extinguished. There is, therefore, a necessity for machines which the Greeks call
sound—which enable the miners to breathe easily and carry on their work.
These devices are of three genera.
The first receives and diverts into
the shaft the blowing of the wind, and this genus is divided into three species,
of which the first is as follows. Over the shaft—to which no tunnel connects—
are placed three sills a little longer than the shaft, the first over the front,
the second over the middle, and the third over the back of the shaft. Their
ends have openings, through which pegs, sharpened at the bottom, are driven
deeply into the ground so as to hold them immovable, in the same way that
the sills of the windlass are fixed. Each of these sills is mortised into each
of three cross-beams, of which one is at the right side of the shaft, the second
at the left, and the third in the middle. To the second sill and the second
cross-beam—each of which is placed over the middle of the shaft—planks
are fixed which are joined in such a manner that the one which precedes
always fits into the groove of the one which follows. In this way four angles
and the same number of intervening hollows are created, which collect the
winds that blow from all directions. The planks are roofed above with a
cover made in a circular shape, and are open below, in order that the wind may
not be diverted upward and escape, but may be carried downward; and there
by the winds of necessity blow into the shafts through these four openings. However, there is no need to roof this kind of machine in those localities in
which it can be so placed that the wind can blow down through its topmost
part.
A—SILLS. B—POINTED STAKES. C—CROSS-BEAMS. D—UPRIGHT PLANKS.
E—HOLLOWS. F—WINDS. G—COVERING DISC. H—SHAFTS. I—MACHINE
WITHOUT A COVERING.
The second machine of this genus turns the blowing wind into a shaft
through a long box-shaped conduit, which is made of as many lengths of
planks, joined together, as the depth of the shaft requires; the joints are
smeared with fat, glutinous clay moistened with water. The mouth of this con
duit either projects out of the shaft to a height of three or four feet, or it does
not project; if it projects, it is shaped like a rectangular funnel, broader and
wider at the top than the conduit itself, that it may the more easily gather
the wind; if it does not project, it is not broader than the conduit, but
planks are fixed to it away from the direction in which the wind is blowing,
which catch the wind and force it into the conduit.
The third of this genus of machine is made of a pipe or pipes and
a barrel. Above the uppermost pipe there is erected a wooden barrel, four
A—PROJECTING MOUTH OF CONDUIT. B—PLANKS FIXED TO THE MOUTH OF THE CONDUIT
WHICH DOES NOT PROJECT.
feet high and three feet in diameter, bound with wooden hoops; it has a
square blow-hole always open, which catches the breezes and guides them
down either by a pipe into a conduit or by many pipes into the shaft. To
the top of the upper pipe is attached a circular table as thick as
the bottom of the barrel, but of a little less diameter, so that the barrel may be
turned around on it; the pipe projects out of the table and is fixed in a
round opening in the centre of the bottom of the barrel. To the end of the
pipe a perpendicular axle is fixed which runs through the centre of the barrel
into a hole in the cover, in which it is fastened, in the same way as at the
bottom. Around this fixed axle and the table on the pipe, the movable
barrel is easily turned by a zephyr, or much more by a wind, which govern
the wing on it. This wing is made of thin boards and fixed to the upper
part of the barrel on the side furthest away from the blow-hole; this, as I
have said, is square and always open. The wind, from whatever quarter of
which way the barrel turns the blow-hole towards the wind itself; the
blow-hole receives the wind, and it is guided down into the shaft by means
of the conduit or pipes.
A—WOODEN BARRELS. B—HOOPS. C—BLOW-HOLES. D—PIPE.
E—TABLE. F—AXLE. G—OPENING IN THE BOTTOM OF THE BARREL.
H—WING.
The second genus of blowing machine is made with fans, and is likewise
varied and of many forms, for the fans are either fitted to a windlass barrel
or to an axle. If to an axle, they are either contained in a hollow drum,
which is made of two wheels and a number of boards joining them together,
or else in a box-shaped casing. The drum is stationary and closed on the
sides, except for round holes of such size that the axle may turn in them;
it has two square blow-holes, of which the upper one receives the air, while
the lower one empties into the conduit through which the air is led down the
shaft. The ends of the axle, which project on each side of the drum, are
supported by forked posts or hollowed beams plated with thick iron; one
end of the axle has a crank, while in the other end are fixed four rods with
thick heavy ends, so that they weight the axle, and when turned, make it
A—DRUM. B—BOX-SHAPED CASING. C—BLOW-HOLE. D—SECOND HOLE.
E—CONDUIT. F—AXLE. G—LEVER OF AXLE. H—RODS.And so, when the workman turns the axle
by the crank, the fans, the description of which I will give a little later, draw
in the air by the blow-hole, and force it through the other blow-hole which
leads to the conduit, and through this conduit the air penetrates into the
shaft.
The one with the box-shaped casing is furnished with just the same
things as the drum, but the drum is far superior to the box: for the fans so
fill the drum that they almost touch it on every side, and drive into the
conduit all the air that has been accumulated; but they cannot thus fill
the box-shaped casing, on account of its angles, into which the air partly
retreats; therefore it cannot be as useful as the drum. The kind with a
box-shaped casing is not only placed on the ground, but is also set up on timbers
like a windmill, and its axle, in place of a crank, has four sails outside,
like the sails of a windmill. When these are struck by the wind they turn
the axle, and in this way its fans—which are placed within the casing—drive
A—BOX-SHAPED CASING PLACED ON THE GROUND. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—ITS AXLE
WITH FANS. D—CRANK OF THE AXLE. E—RODS OF SAME. F—CASING SET ON TIMBERS.
G—SAILS WHICH THE AXLE HAS OUTSIDE THE CASING.Although
this machine has no need of men whom it is necessary to pay to work the
crank, still when the sky is devoid of wind, as it often is, the machine does
not turn, and it is therefore less suitable than the others for ventilating a shaft.
In the kind where the fans are fixed to an axle, there is generally a
hollow stationary drum at one end of the axle, and on the other end is fixed
a drum made of rundles. This rundle drum is turned by the toothed wheel
of a lower axle, which is itself turned by a wheel whose buckets receive the
impetus of water. If the locality supplies an abundance of water this
machine is most useful, because to turn the crank does not need men
who require pay, and because it forces air without cessation through the
conduit into the shaft.
A—HOLLOW DRUM. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—AXLE WITH FANS. D—DRUM
WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. E—LOWER AXLE. F—ITS TOOTHED WHEEL.
G—WATER WHEEL.
Of the fans which are fixed on to an axle contained in a drum or box,
there are three sorts. The first sort is made of thin boards of such length
and width as the height and width of the drum or box require; the second
long thin blades of poplar or some other flexible wood; the third sort has
boards like the last, to which are bound double and triple rows of goose
feathers. This last is less used than the second, which in turn is less used
than the first. The boards of the fan are mortised into the quadrangular
parts of the barrel axle.
A—FIRST KIND OF FAN. B—SECOND KIND OF FAN. C—THIRD KIND OF
FAN. D—QUADRANGULAR PART OF AXLE. E—ROUND PART OF SAME.
F—CRANK.
Blowing machines of the third genus, which are no less varied and of no
fewer forms than those of the second genus, are made with bellows, for by its
blasts the shafts and tunnels are not only furnished with air through conduits
or pipes, but they can also be cleared by suction of their heavy and pestilential
vapours. In the latter case, when the bellows is opened it draws the
vapours from the conduits through its blow-hole and sucks these vapours
into itself; in the former case, when it is compressed, it drives the air through
its nozzle into the conduits or pipes. They are compressed either by a man,
fixed to the timbers above the conduit which projects out of the shaft, and so
placed that when the blast is blown through the conduit, its nozzle is
set in the conduit. When it is desired to suck out heavy or pestilential
vapours, the blow-hole of the bellows is fitted all round the mouth of the
conduit. Fixed to the upper bellows board is a lever which couples
with another running downward from a little axle, into which it is
mortised so that it may remain immovable; the iron journals of this little
axle revolve in openings of upright posts; and so when the workman pulls
down the lever the upper board of the bellows is raised, and at the same time
the flap of the blow-hole is dragged open by the force of the wind. If the
nozzle of the bellows is enclosed in the conduit it draws pure air into itself,
but if its blow-hole is fitted all round the mouth of the conduit it exhausts
the heavy and pestilential vapours out of the conduit and thus from the
shaft, even if it is one hundred and twenty feet deep. A stone placed on the
upper board of the bellows depresses it and then the flap of the blow-hole is
A—SMALLER PART OF SHAFT. B—SQUARE CONDUIT. C—BELLOWS. D—LARGER PART
OF SHAFT.The bellows, by the first method, blows fresh air into the conduit
through its nozzle, and by the second method blows out through the nozzle
the heavy and pestilential vapours which have been collected. In this
latter case fresh air enters through the larger part of the shaft, and the miners
getting the benefit of it can sustain their toil. A certain smaller part of the
shaft which forms a kind of estuary, requires to be partitioned off from the
other larger part by uninterrupted lagging, which reaches from the top of the
shaft to the bottom; through this part the long but narrow conduit reaches
down nearly to the bottom of the shaft.
When no shaft has been sunk to such depth as to meet a tunnel driven
far into a mountain, these machines should be built in such a manner that
the workman can move them about. Close by the drains of the tunnel
through which the water flows away, wooden pipes should be placed and
joined tightly together in such a manner that they can hold the air; these
should reach from the mouth of the tunnel to its furthest end. At the mouth
of the tunnel the bellows should be so placed that through its nozzle it can
blow its accumulated blasts into the pipes or the conduit; since one blast
A—TUNNEL. B—PIPE. C—NOZZLE OF DOUBLE BELLOWS.
the air, whereby the miners are enabled to continue their work.
If heavy vapours need to be drawn off from the tunnels, generally three
double or triple bellows, without nozzles and closed in the forepart, are placed
upon benches. A workman compresses them by treading with his feet, just
as persons compress those bellows of the organs which give out varied and
sweet sounds in churches. These heavy vapours are thus drawn along the
air-pipes and through the blow-hole of the lower bellows board, and are
expelled through the blow-hole of the upper bellows board into the open
air, or into some shaft or drift. This blow-hole has a flap-valve, which the
noxious blast opens, as often as it passes out. Since one volume of air con
stantly rushes in to take the place of another which has been drawn out by
the bellows, not only is the heavy air drawn out of a tunnel as great as 1,200
feet long, or even longer, but also the wholesome air is naturally drawn in
through that part of the tunnel which is open outside the conduits. In this way
the air is changed, and the miners are enabled to carry on the work they have
begun. If machines of this kind had not been invented, it would be necessary
for miners to drive two tunnels into a mountain, and continually, at every
two hundred feet at most, to sink a shaft from the upper tunnel to the
lower one, that the air passing into the one, and descending by the shafts
into the other, would be kept fresh for the miners; this could not be done
without great expense.
There are two different machines for operating, by means of horses, the
above described bellows. The first of these machines has on its axle a
wooden wheel, the rim of which is covered all the way round by steps; a
horse is kept continually within bars, like those within which horses are held
to be shod with iron, and by treading these steps with its feet it turns the wheel,
together with the axle; the cams on the axle press down the sweeps which
compress the bellows. The way the instrument is made which raises the
bellows again, and also the benches on which the bellows rest, I will explain
more clearly in Book IX. Each bellows, if it draws heavy vapours
out of a tunnel, blows them out of the hole in the upper board; if they are
drawn out of a shaft, it blows them out through its nozzle. The wheel has
a round hole, which is transfixed with a pole when the machine needs to be
stopped.
The second machine has two axles; the upright one is turned by a horse,
and its toothed drum turns a drum made of rundles on a horizontal axle;
in other respects this machine is like the last. Here, also, the nozzles of
the bellows placed in the conduits blow a blast into the shaft or tunnel.
In the same way that this last machine can refresh the heavy air of a
shaft or tunnel, so also could the old system of ventilating by the constant
shaking of linen cloths, which Pliny
A—MACHINE FIRST DESCRIBED. B—THIS WORKMAN, TREADING WITH HIS FEET, IS COM
PRESSING THE BELLOWS. C—BELLOWS WITHOUT NOZZLES. D—HOLE BY WHICH HEAVY
VAPOURS OR BLASTS ARE BLOWN OUT. E—CONDUITS. F—TUNNEL. G—SECOND
MACHINE DESCRIBED. H—WOODEN WHEEL. I—ITS STEPS. K—BARS. L—HOLE IN
SAME WHEEL. M—POLE. N—THIRD MACHINE DESCRIBED. O—UPRIGHT AXLE.
P—ITS TOOTHED DRUM. Q—HORIZONTAL AXLE. R—ITS DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES.
A—TUNNEL. B—LINEN CLOTH.
heavier with the depth of a shaft, of which fact he has made mention, but
also with the length of a tunnel.
The climbing machines of miners are ladders, fixed to one side of the shaft,
and these reach either to the tunnel or to the bottom of the shaft. I need not
describe how they are made, because they are used everywhere, and need
not so much skill in their construction as care in fixing them. However,
miners go down into mines not only by the steps of ladders, but they are
also lowered into them while sitting on a stick or a wicker basket, fastened to
the rope of one of the three drawing machines which I described at first. Further, when the shafts are much inclined, miners and other workmen
sit in the dirt which surrounds their loins and slide down in the same way
that boys do in winter-time when the water on some hillside has congealed
with the cold, and to prevent themselves from falling, one arm is wound about
a rope, the upper end of which is fastened to a beam at the mouth of the shaft,
and the lower end to a stake fixed in the bottom of the shaft. In these three
ways miners descend into the shafts. A fourth way may be mentioned
which is employed when men and horses go down to the underground
A—DESCENDING INTO THE SHAFT BY LADDERS. B—BY SITTING ON A STICK. C—BY
SITTING ON THE DIRT. D—DESCENDING BY STEPS CUT IN THE ROCK.
a screw and have steps cut in the rock, as I have already described.
It remains for me to speak of the ailments and accidents of miners, and of
the methods by which they can guard against these, for we should always
devote more care to maintaining our health, that we may freely perform our
bodily functions, than to making profits. Of the illnesses, some affect the
joints, others attack the lungs, some the eyes, and finally some are fatal to
men.
Where water in shafts is abundant and very cold, it frequently injures
the limbs, for cold is harmful to the sinews. To meet this, miners should
make themselves sufficiently high boots of rawhide, which protect their
legs from the cold water; the man who does not follow this advice will
suffer much ill-health, especially when he reaches old age. On the other
hand, some mines are so dry that they are entirely devoid of water, and this
dryness causes the workmen even greater harm, for the dust which is stirred
and beaten up by digging penetrates into the windpipe and lungs, and
produces difficulty in breathing, and the disease which the Greeks call
implants consumption in the body; hence in the mines of the Carpathian
Mountains women are found who have married seven husbands, all of whom
this terrible consumption has carried off to a premature death. At Altenberg
in Meissen there is found in the mines black
and ulcers to the bone; this also corrodes iron, for which reason the keys
of their sheds are made of wood. Further, there is a certain kind of
which eats away the feet of the workmen when they have become wet, and
similarly their hands, and injures their lungs and eyes. Therefore, for their
long enough to reach to the elbow, and they should fasten loose veils over their
faces; the dust will then neither be drawn through these into their wind
pipes and lungs, nor will it fly into their eyes. Not dissimilarly, among the
Romans
dust.
Stagnant air, both that which remains in a shaft and that which remains
in a tunnel, produces a difficulty in breathing; the remedies for this evil
are the ventilating machines which I have explained above. There is another
illness even more destructive, which soon brings death to men who work
in those shafts or levels or tunnels in which the hard rock is broken by fire. Here the air is infected with poison, since large and small veins and seams
in the rocks exhale some subtle poison from the minerals, which is driven
out by the fire, and this poison itself is raised with the smoke not unlike
ore is smelted. If this poison cannot escape from the ground, but falls down
into the pools and floats on their surface, it often causes danger, for if at any
time the water is disturbed through a stone or anything else, these fumes rise
again from the pools and thus overcome the men, by being drawn in with their
breath; this is even much worse if the fumes of the fire have not yet all
escaped. The bodies of living creatures who are infected with this poison
generally swell immediately and lose all movement and feeling, and they die
without pain; men even in the act of climbing from the shafts by the
steps of ladders fall back into the shafts when the poison overtakes them,
because their hands do not perform their office, and seem to them to be round
and spherical, and likewise their feet. If by good fortune the injured
ones escape these evils, for a little while they are pale and look like
dead men. At such times, no one should descend into the mine or into the
neighbouring mines, or if he is in them he should come out quickly. Prudent
and skilled miners burn the piles of wood on Friday, towards evening, and
and in the meantime the poisonous fumes pass away.
There are also times when a reckoning has to be made with Orcus,
for some metalliferous localities, though such are rare, spontaneously
produce poison and exhale pestilential vapour, as is also the case with some
openings in the ore, though these more often contain the noxious fumes. In the towns of the plains of Bohemia there are some caverns which,
at certain seasons of the year, emit pungent vapours which put out lights
and kill the miners if they linger too long in them. Pliny, too, has left
a record that when wells are sunk, the sulphurous or aluminous vapours
which arise kill the well-diggers, and it is a test of this danger if a burning
lamp which has been let down is extinguished. In such cases a second well
is dug to the right or left, as an air-shaft, which draws off these noxious
vapours. On the plains they construct bellows which draw up these noxious
vapours and remedy this evil; these I have described before.
Further, sometimes workmen slipping from the ladders into the shafts
break their arms, legs, or necks, or fall into the sumps and are drowned;
often, indeed, the negligence of the foreman is to blame, for it is his special
work both to fix the ladders so firmly to the timbers that they cannot break
away, and to cover so securely with planks the sumps at the bottom of the
shafts, that the planks cannot be moved nor the men fall into the water;
wherefore the foreman must carefully execute his own work. Moreover,
he must not set the entrance of the shaft-house toward the north wind,
lest in winter the ladders freeze with cold, for when this happens the men's
hands become stiff and slippery with cold, and cannot perform their office
of holding. The men, too, must be careful that, even if none of these things
happen, they do not fall through their own carelessness.
Mountains, too, slide down and men are crushed in their fall and perish.
In fact, when in olden days Rammelsberg, in Goslar, sank down, so many
men were crushed in the ruins that in one day, the records tell us, about
400 women were robbed of their husbands. And eleven years ago, part
of the mountain of Altenberg, which had been excavated, became loose and
sank, and suddenly crushed six miners; it also swallowed up a hut and one
mother and her little boy. But this generally occurs in those mountains
which contain Therefore, miners should leave numerous
arches under the mountains which need support, or provide underpinning. Falling pieces of rock also injure their limbs, and to prevent this from hap
pening, miners should protect the shafts, tunnels, and drifts.
The venomous ant which exists in Sardinia is not found in our mines.
This animal is, as Solinus
is called
who imprudently sit on it. But, as the same writer tells us, springs of warm
and salubrious waters gush out in certain places, which neutralise the venom
inserted by the ants.
In some of our mines, however, though in very few, there are other
pernicious pests. These are demons of ferocious aspect, about which I have
spoken in my book Demons of this kind
are expelled and put to flight by prayer and fasting.
Some of these evils, as well as certain other things, are the reason why
pits are occasionally abandoned. But the first and principal cause is that
they do not yield metal, or if, for some fathoms, they do bear metal they
become barren in depth. The second cause is the quantity of water which
flows in; sometimes the miners can neither divert this water into the
tunnels, since tunnels cannot be driven so far into the mountains, or they
cannot draw it out with machines because the shafts are too deep; or if they
could draw it out with machines, they do not use them, the reason
undoubtedly being that the expenditure is greater than the profits of a
moderately poor vein. The third cause is the noxious air, which the owners
sometimes cannot overcome either by skill or expenditure, for which reason
the digging is sometimes abandoned, not only of shafts, but also of tunnels. The
fourth cause is the poison produced in particular places, if it is not in our
power either completely to remove it or to moderate its effects. This is the
reason why the caverns in the Plain known as LaurentiusThe fifth cause are the
fierce and murderous demons, for if they cannot be expelled, no one escapes
from them. The sixth cause is that the underpinnings become loosened
and collapse, and a fall of the mountain usually follows; the underpinnings
are then only restored when the vein is very rich in metal. The seventh
cause is military operations. Shafts and tunnels should not be re-opened
unless we are quite certain of the reasons why the miners have deserted them,
because we ought not to believe that our ancestors were so indolent and
spiritless as to desert mines which could have been carried on with profit. Indeed, in our own days, not a few miners, persuaded by old women's tales,
have re-opened deserted shafts and lost their time and trouble. Therefore,
to prevent future generations from being led to act in such a way, it is
advisable to set down in writing the reason why the digging of each shaft or
tunnel has been abandoned, just as it is agreed was once done at Freiberg,
when the shafts were deserted on account of the great inrush of water.
END OF BOOK VI.
Since the Sixth Book has described the iron tools,
the vessels and the machines used in mines, this
Book will describe the methods of assaying
because it is desirable to first test them in order
that the material mined may be advantageously
smelted, or that the dross may be purged away and
the metal made pure. Although writers have men
tioned such tests, yet none of them have set down the
directions for performing them, wherefore it is no
wonder that those who come later have written nothing on the subject. By tests of this kind miners can determine with certainty whether
ores contain any metal in them or not; or if it has already been
indicated that the ore contains one or more metals, the tests show whether
it is much or little; the miners also ascertain by such tests the method by
which the metal can be separated from that part of the ore devoid of it;
and further, by these tests, they determine that part in which there is much
metal from that part in which there is little. Unless these tests have been
carefully applied before the metals are melted out, the ore cannot be smelted
without great loss to the owners, for the parts which do not easily melt in the
fire carry the metals off with them or consume them. In the last case, they pass
off with the fumes; in the other case they are mixed with the slag and furnace
accretions, and in such event the owners lose the labour which they have spent
in preparing the furnaces and the crucibles, and further, it is necessary for them
to incur fresh expenditure for fluxes and other things. Metals, when they have
been melted out, are usually assayed in order that we may ascertain what pro
portion of silver is in a
gold is in one
or lead is contained in a
contained in one And from this we can calculate whether it
will be worth while to separate the precious metals from the base metals, or
not. Further, a test of this kind shows whether coins are good or are
debased; and readily detects silver, if the coiners have mixed more than is
lawful with the gold; or copper, if the coiners have alloyed with the gold or
silver more of it than is allowable. I will explain all these methods with the
utmost care that I can.
The method of assaying ore used by mining people, differs from
smelting only by the small amount of material used. Inasmuch as, by
smelting a small quantity, they learn whether the smelting of a large
particular to employ assays, they may, as I have already said, sometimes smelt
the metal from the ore with a loss or sometimes without any profit; for they
expense. Both processes, however, are carried out in the same way, for just
as we assay ore in a little furnace, so do we smelt it in the large furnace. Also
in both cases charcoal and not wood is burned. Moreover, in the crucible
when metals are tested, be they gold, silver, copper, or lead, they are mixed in
precisely the same way as they are mixed in the blast furnace when they
are smelted. Further, those who assay ores with fire, either pour out the
metal in a liquid state, or, when it has cooled, break the crucible and clean
flows from the furnace into the forehearth, pours in cold water and takes the
slag from the metal with a hooked bar. Finally, in the same way that gold
and silver are separated from lead in a cupel, so also are they separated in
the cupellation furnace.
It is necessary that the assayer who is testing ore or metals should be
prepared and instructed in all things necessary in assaying, and that he
should close the doors of the room in which the assay furnace stands, lest
ROUND ASSAY FURNACE.
RECTANGULAR ASSAY FURNACE.
they are intent on the work. It is also necessary for him to place his balances
in a case, so that when he weighs the little buttons of metal the scales may
not be agitated by a draught of air, for that is a hindrance to his work.
Now I will describe the different things which are necessary in assaying,
beginning with the assay furnace, of which one differs from another in
shape, material, and the place in which it is set. In shape, they may be
round or rectangular, the latter shape being more suited to assaying ores. The materials of the assay furnaces differ, in that one is made of bricks,
another of iron, and certain ones of clay. The one of bricks is built on a
chimney-hearth which is three and a half feet high; the iron one is placed
in the same position, and also the one of clay. The brick one is a cubit high,
a foot wide on the inside, and one foot two digits long; at a point five digits
above the hearth—which is usually the thickness of an unbaked
an iron plate is laid, and smeared over with lute on the upper side to prevent
it from being injured by the fire; in front of the furnace above the plate is a
mouth a palm high, five digits wide, and rounded at the top. The iron plate
A—OPENINGS IN THE PLATE. B—PART OF PLATE WHICH PROJECTS BEYOND THE FURNACE.
has three openings which are one digit wide and three digits long, one is at
each side and the third at the back; through them sometimes the ash falls
from the burning charcoal, and sometimes the draught blows through the
chamber which is below the iron plate, and stimulates the fire. For this
reason this furnace when used by metallurgists is named from assaying, but
when used by the alchemists it is named from the windThe part of the
iron plate which projects from the furnace is generally three-quarters of a
can be placed quickly in the furnace through its mouth with a pair of tongs,
or again, if necessary, can be taken out of the furnace and laid there.
The iron assay furnace is made of four iron bars a foot and a half high,
which at the bottom are bent outward and broadened a short distance to enable
them to stand more firmly; the front part of the furnace is made from two
of these bars, and the back part from two of them; to these bars on both
sides are joined and welded three iron cross-bars, the first at a height of a palm
from the bottom, the second at a height of a foot, and the third at the top. The upright bars are perforated at that point where the side cross-bars are
joined to them, in order that three similar iron bars on the remaining sides
can be engaged in them; thus there are twelve cross-bars, which make
three stages at unequal intervals. At the lower stage, the upright bars are
distant from each other one foot and five digits; and at the middle stage the
front is distant from the back three palms and one digit, and the sides are
distant from each other three palms and as many digits; at the highest stage
from the front to the back there is a distance of two palms, and between the
sides three palms, so that in this way the furnace becomes narrower at the
top. Furthermore, an iron rod, bent to the shape of the mouth, is set into
the lowest bar of the front; this mouth, just like that of the brick furnace,
is a palm high and five digits wide. Then the front cross-bar of the lower
stage is perforated on each side of the mouth, and likewise the back one;
through these perforations there pass two iron rods, thus making altogether
four bars in the lower stage, and these support an iron plate smeared with
lute; part of this plate also projects outside the furnace. The outside of
the furnace from the lower stage to the upper, is covered with iron plates,
which are bound to the bars by iron wires, and smeared with lute to enable
them to bear the heat of the fire as long as possible.
As for the clay furnace, it must be made of fat, thick clay, medium so
far as relates to its softness or hardness. This furnace has exactly the same
height as the iron one, and its base is made of two earthenware tiles, one
foot and three palms long and one foot and one palm wide. Each side of the
fore part of both tiles is gradually cut away for the length of a palm, so
that they are half a foot and a digit wide, which part projects from the
furnace; the tiles are about a digit and a half thick. The walls are similarly
of clay, and are set on the lower tiles at a distance of a digit from the edge,
and support the upper tiles; the walls are three digits high and have four
openings, each of which is about three digits high; those of the back part and
of each side are five digits wide, and of the front, a palm and a half wide, to
enable the freshly made cupels to be conveniently placed on the hearth, when
it has been thoroughly warmed, that they may be dried there. Both tiles
are bound on the outer edge with iron wire, pressed into them, so that they
will be less easily broken; and the tiles, not unlike the iron bed-plate, have
three openings three digits long and a digit wide, in order that when the upper
one on account of the heat of the fire or for some other reason has become
damaged, the lower one may be exchanged and take its place. Through these
air blows into the furnace after passing through the openings in the walls of
the chamber. The furnace is rectangular, and inside at the lower part it is
three palms and one digit wide and three palms and as many digits long. At
the upper part it is two palms and three digits wide, so that it also grows
narrower; it is one foot high; in the middle of the back it is cut out at
the bottom in the shape of a semicircle, of half a digit radius. Not
unlike the furnace before described, it has in its forepart a mouth which is
rounded at the top, one palm high and a palm and a digit wide. Its door
is also made of clay, and this has a window and a handle; even the lid
of the furnace which is made of clay has its own handle, fastened on with iron
wire. The outer parts and sides of this furnace are bound with iron wires,
which are usually pressed in, in the shape of triangles. The brick furnaces
must remain stationary; the clay and iron ones can be carried from one
place to another. Those of brick can be prepared more quickly, while those
of iron are more lasting, and those of clay are more suitable. Assayers
also make temporary furnaces in another way; they stand three bricks
on a hearth, one on each side and a third one at the back, the fore-part lies
open to the draught, and on these bricks is placed an iron plate, upon which
they again stand three bricks, which hold and retain the charcoal.
The setting of one furnace differs from another, in that some are placed
higher and others lower; that one is placed higher, in which the man who is
assaying the ore or metals introduces the scorifier through the mouth with the
tongs; that one is placed lower, into which he introduces the crucible
through its open top.
In some cases the assayer uses an iron hoop
this is placed upon the hearth of a chimney, the lower edge being daubed
with lute to prevent the blast of the bellows from escaping under it. If the blast is given slowly, the ore will be smelted and the copper will melt in
the triangular crucible, which is placed in it and taken away again with the
tongs. The hoop is two palms high and half a digit thick; its diameter is
generally one foot and one palm, and where the blast from the bellows enters
into it, it is notched out. The bellows is a double one, such as goldworkers
use, and sometimes smiths. In the middle of the bellows there is a board in
which there is an air-hole, five digits wide and seven long, covered by a
little flap which is fastened over the air-hole on the lower side of the board;
this flap is of equal length and width. The bellows, without its head, is
three feet long, and at the back is one foot and one palm wide and
somewhat rounded, and it is three palms wide at the head; the head itself
is three palms long and two palms and a digit wide at the part where it joins
the boards, then it gradually becomes narrower. The nozzle, of which there
is only one, is one foot and two digits long; this nozzle, and one-half of the
head in which the nozzle is fixed, are placed in an opening of the wall, this
being one foot and one palm thick; it reaches only to the iron hoop on the The hide of the bellows is
fixed to the bellows-boards with its own peculiar kind of iron nails. It joins
both bellows-boards to the head, and over it there are cross strips of
hide fixed to the bellows-boards with broad-headed nails, and similarly
fixed to the head. The middle board of the bellows rests on an iron bar,
to which it is fastened with iron nails clinched on both ends, so that it cannot
move; the iron bar is fixed between two upright posts, through which it
penetrates. Higher up on these upright posts there is a wooden axle, with
iron journals which revolve in the holes in the posts. In the middle of
this axle there is mortised a lever, fixed with iron nails to prevent it from
flying out; the lever is five and a half feet long, and its posterior end is
engaged in the iron ring of an iron rod which reaches to the “tail” of the
lowest bellows-board, and there engages another similar ring. And so when
the workman pulls down the lever, the lower part of the bellows is raised and
drives the wind into the nozzle; then the wind, penetrating through the hole
in the middle bellows-board, which is called the air-hole, lifts up the upper
part of the bellows, upon whose upper board is a piece of lead, heavy enough
to press down that part of the bellows again, and this being pressed down
blows a blast through the nozzle. This is the principle of the double bellows,
which is peculiar to the iron hoop where are placed the triangular crucibles in
which copper ore is smelted and copper is melted.
A—IRON HOOP. B—DOUBLE BELLOWS. C—ITS NOZZLE. D—LEVER.
I have spoken of the furnaces and the iron hoop; I will now speak of
the muffles and the crucibles. The muffle is made of clay, in the shape
of an inverted gutter tile; it covers the scorifiers, lest coal dust fall into
them and interfere with the assay. It is a palm and a half broad, and the
height, which corresponds with the mouth of the furnace, is generally a palm,
the mouth of the furnace, everywhere else on the sides and at the back
there is a space of three digits, to allow the charcoal to lie in the open space
between it and the furnace. The muffle is as thick as a fairly thick earthen
jar; its upper part is entire; the back has two little windows, and each side
has two or three or even four, through which the heat passes into the scorifiers
and melts the ore. In place of little windows, some muffles have small holes,
ten in the back and more on each side. Moreover, in the back below the
little windows, or small holes, there are cut away three semi-circular notches
half a digit high, and on each side there are four. The back of the muffle
is generally a little lower than the front.
A—BROAD LITTLE WINDOWS OF MUFFLE. B—NARROW ONES. C—OPENINGS IN THE
BACK THEREOF.
The crucibles differ in the materials from which they are made, because
they are made of either clay or ashes; and those of clay, which we also call
“earthen,” differ in shape and size. Some are made in the shape of a mod
erately thick salver (scorifiers), three digits wide, and of a capacity of an
by those who assay gold or silver ore. Some are triangular and much
thicker and more capacious, holding five, or six, or even more
these copper is melted, so that it can be poured out, expanded, and tested
with fire, and in these copper ore is usually melted.
The cupels are made of ashes; like the preceding scorifiers they are
tray-shaped, and their lower part is very thick but their capacity is less. In these lead is separated from silver, and by them assays are concluded.
Inasmuch as the assayers themselves make the cupels, something must
be said about the material from which they are made, and the method
of making them. Some make them out of all kinds of ordinary ashes; these
are not good, because ashes of this kind contain a certain amount of fat,
whereby such cupels are easily broken when they are hot. Others make
them likewise out of any kind of ashes which have been previously
leached; of this kind are the ashes into which warm water has been infused
for the purpose of making lye. These ashes, after being dried in the sun or
a furnace, are sifted in a hair sieve; and although warm water washes away the
A—SCORIFIER. B—TRIANGULAR CRUCIBLE. C—CUPEL.
fat from the ashes, still the cupels which are made from such ashes are not
very good because they often contain charcoal dust, sand, and pebbles. Some make them in the same way out of any kind of ashes, but first of all
pour water into the ashes and remove the scum which floats thereon; then,
after it has become clear, they pour away the water, and dry the ashes; they
then sift them and make the cupels from them. These, indeed, are good,
but not of the best quality, because ashes of this kind are also not devoid of
small pebbles and sand. To enable cupels of the best quality to be made, all
the impurities must be removed from the ashes. These impurities are of
two kinds; the one sort light, to which class belong charcoal dust and fatty
material and other things which float in water, the other sort heavy, such
as small stones, fine sand, and any other materials which settle in the
bottom of a vessel. Therefore, first of all, water should be poured into the
ashes and the light impurities removed; then the ashes should be
kneaded with the hands, so that they will become properly mixed with
the water. When the water has become muddy and turbid, it should be
poured into a second vessel. In this way the small stones and fine sand, or
any other heavy substance which may be there, remain in the first vessel,
and should be thrown away. When all the ashes have settled in this second
vessel, which will be shown if the water has become clear and does not taste
of the flavour of lye, the water should be thrown away, and the ashes
which have settled in the vessel should be dried in the sun or in a furnace. This material is suitable for the cupels, especially if it is the ash of beech
wood or other wood which has a small annual growth; those ashes made
from twigs and limbs of vines, which have rapid annual growth, are not so
frequently crack and break in the fire and absorb the metals. If ashes of
beech or similar wood are not to be had, the assayer makes little balls of such
ashes as he can get, after they have been cleared of impurities in the manner
before described, and puts them in a baker's or potter's oven to burn, and from
these the cupels are made, because the fire consumes whatever fat or damp
there may be. As to all kinds of ashes, the older they are the better, for it is
necessary that they should have the greatest possible dryness. For this
reason ashes obtained from burned bones, especially from the bones of the
heads of animals, are the most suitable for cupels, as are also those ashes
obtained from the horns of deer and the spines of fishes. Lastly, some take the
ashes which are obtained from burnt scrapings of leather, when the tanners
scrape the hides to clear them from hair. Some prefer to use compounds,
that one being recommended which has one and a half parts of ashes from the
bones of animals or the spines of fishes, and one part of beech ashes, and half a
part of ashes of burnt hide scrapings. From this mixture good cupels are
made, though far better ones are obtained from equal portions of ashes of
burnt hide scrapings, ashes of the bones of heads of sheep and calves, and
ashes of deer horns. But the best of all are produced from deer horns alone,
burnt to powder; this kind, by reason of its extreme dryness, absorbs metals
least of all. Assayers of our own day, however, generally make the
cupels from beech ashes. These ashes, after being prepared in the
manner just described, are first of all sprinkled with beer or water, to make
them stick together, and are then ground in a small mortar. They are ground
again after being mixed with the ashes obtained from the skulls of beasts or from
the spines of fishes; the more the ashes are ground the better they are. Some rub bricks and sprinkle the dust so obtained, after sifting it, into the
beech ashes, for dust of this kind does not allow the hearth-lead to absorb
the gold or silver by eating away the cupels. Others, to guard against the
same thing, moisten the cupels with white of egg after they have been made,
and when they have been dried in the sun, again crush them; especially if they
want to assay in it an ore or copper which contains iron. Some moisten the
ashes again and again with cow's milk, and dry them, and grind them in a
small mortar, and then mould the cupels. In the works in which silver
is separated from copper, they make cupels from two parts of the ashes of
the crucible of the cupellation furnace, for these ashes are very dry, and from
one part of bone-ash. Cupels which have been made in these ways also
need to be placed in the sun or in a furnace; afterward, in whatever way
they have been made, they must be kept a long time in dry places, for the
older they are, the dryer and better they are.
Not only potters, but also the assayers themselves, make scorifiers
and triangular crucibles. They make them out of fatty clay, which is
dryWith this clay they mix the dust of old
broken crucibles, or of burnt and worn bricks; then they knead with a
pestle the clay thus mixed with dust, and then dry it. As to these crucibles,
The moulds in which the
cupels are moulded are of two kinds, that is, a smaller size and a larger size. In the smaller ones are made the cupels in which silver or gold is purged
from the lead which has absorbed it; in the larger ones are made cupels in
which silver is separated from copper and lead. Both moulds are made out
of brass and have no bottom, in order that the cupels can be taken out of
them whole. The pestles also are of two kinds, smaller and larger, each
likewise of brass, and from the lower end of them there projects a round
knob, and this alone is pressed into the mould and makes the hollow part of
the cupel. The part which is next to the knob corresponds to the upper
part of the mould.
A—LITTLE MOULD. B—INVERTED MOULD. C—PESTLE. D—ITS KNOB. E—SECOND
PESTLE.
So much for these matters.
I will now speak of the preparation of the
ore for assaying. It is prepared by roasting, burning, crushing, and wash
ing. It is necessary to take a fixed weight of ore in order that one may
determine how great a portion of it these preparations consume. The
hard stone containing the metal is burned in order that, when its hardness
has been overcome, it can be crushed and washed; indeed, the very hardest
kind, before it is burned, is sprinkled with vinegar, in order that it may more
rapidly soften in the fire. The soft stone should be broken with a hammer,
crushed in a mortar and reduced to powder; then it should be washed
and then dried again. If earth is mixed with the mineral, it is washed in a
basin, and that which settles is assayed in the fire after it is dried. All mining
products which are washed must again be dried. But ore which is rich in
metal is neither burned nor crushed nor washed, but is roasted, lest that
method of preparation should lose some of the metal. When the fires have
up with lute. A less valuable ore is even burned on a hearth, being placed
upon the charcoal; for we do not make a great expenditure upon metals, if
they are not worth it. However, I will go into fuller details as to all these
methods of preparing ore, both a little later, and in the following Book.
For the present, I have decided to explain those things which mining
people usually call fluxes
assaying, but also for smelting. Great power is discovered in all these fluxes,
but we do not see the same effects produced in every case; and some are of a
very complicated nature. For when they have been mixed with the ore
and are melted in either the assay or the smelting furnace, some of them,
because they melt easily, to some extent melt the ore; others, because they
either make the ore very hot or penetrate into it, greatly assist the fire in
separating the impurities from the metals, and they also mix the fused part
with the lead, or they partly protect from the fire the ore whose metal contents
would be either consumed in the fire, or carried up with the fumes and fly out
of the furnace; some fluxes absorb the metals. To the first order be
longs lead, whether it be reduced to little granules or resolved into ash by
fire, or red-lead
slags of gold, silver, copper, and lead; also soda
alum, vitriol,
in hot furnaces, the sand which is made from themBut lead, its ashes, red-lead, ochre, and
litharge, are more efficacious for ores which melt easily; hearth-lead for
those which melt with difficulty; and galena for those which melt with
greater difficulty. To the second order belong iron filings, their slag,
artificíosus,
gold from silver
into ore, the argol to a considerable degree, the lees of vinegar to a greater
degree, but most of all those of the
filings and slags of iron, since they melt more slowly, have the power of heat
ing the ore. To the third order belong pyrites, the cakes which are melted
from them, soda, its slags, salt, iron, iron scales, iron filings, iron slags, vitriol,
the sand which is resolved from stones which easily melt in the fire, and
they absorb the metals of the ore and guard them from the fire which con
sumes them. To the fourth order belong lead and copper, and their relations.
And so with regard to fluxes, it is manifest that some are natural, others
fall in the category of slags, and the rest are purged from slag. When we
sort of flux, but when we smelt them we cannot add a large portion without
great expense. We must, therefore, consider how great the cost is, to avoid
incurring a greater expense on smelting an ore than the profit we make out of
the metals which it yields.
The colour of the fumes which the ore emits after being placed on a hot
shovel or an iron plate, indicates what flux is needed in addition to the lead,
for the purpose of either assaying or smelting. If the fumes have a purple
tint, it is best of all, and the ore does not generally require any flux whatever. If the fumes are blue, there should be added cakes melted out of pyrites or
other cupriferous rock; if yellow, litharge and sulphur should be added; if
red, glass-galls
litharge, and glass-galls; if the fumes are black, melted salt or iron slag,
litharge and white lime rock. If they are white, sulphur and iron which is
eaten with rust; if they are white with green patches, iron slag and
sand obtained from stones which easily melt; if the middle part of the
fumes are yellow and thick, but the outer parts green, the same sand and
iron slag. The colour of the fumes not only gives us information as to the
proper remedies which should be applied to each ore, but also more or less
indication as to the solidified juices which are mixed with it, and which give
forth such fumes. Generally, blue fumes signify that the ore contains azure;
yellow, orpiment; red, realgar; green, chrysocolla; black, black bitumen;
white, tin
the middle part yellow and other parts green show that it contains sulphur. Earth, however, and other things dug up which contain metals, some
times emit similarly coloured fumes.
If the ore contains any
then are added cakes melted from a cupriferous stone and sand made from
stones which easily melt. If the ore contains iron, then pyrites and sulphur
are added; for just as iron slag is the flux for an ore mixed with sulphur, so
on the contrary, to a gold or silver ore containing iron, from which they are
easily melt.
By the first method, equal portions of argol, lees of vinegar, and urine,
are all boiled down together till turned into salt. The second method is from
equal portions of the ashes which wool-dyers use, of lime. of argol purified,
and of melted salt; one
twenty
and afterward there is added to what remains one
of unmelted salt, eight pounds of lye being at the same time poured into
the pots, with litharge smeared around on the inside, and the whole is boiled
till the salt becomes thoroughly dry. The third method follows.
Unmelted
salt, and iron which is eaten with rust, are put into a vessel, and after
urine has been poured in, it is covered with a lid and put in a warm place
for thirty days; then the iron is washed in the urine and taken out, and
the residue is boiled until it is turned into salt. In the fourth method by
which
lime and the ashes which wool-dyers use, together with equal portions of
salt, soap, white argol, and saltpetre, are boiled until in the end the mix
ture evaporates and becomes salt. This salt is mixed with the concentrates
from washing, to melt them.
Saltpetre is prepared in the following manner, in order that it may be
suitable for use in assaying ore. It is placed in a pot which is smeared on
the inside with litharge, and lye made of quicklime is repeatedly poured over
it, and it is heated until the fire consumes it. Wherefore the saltpetre
does not kindle with the fire, since it has absorbed the lime which preserves
it, and thus it is prepared
The following compositions
the heat of fire breaks up or melts only with difficulty. Of these, one is made
from stones of the third order, which easily melt when thrown into hot
furnaces. They are crushed into pure white powder, and with half an
This mixture is put into a scorifier large enough to hold it, and placed under
the muffle of a hot furnace; when the charge flows like water, which occurs
after half an hour, it is taken out of the furnace and poured on to a stone,
and when it has hardened it has the appearance of glass, and this is likewise
crushed. This powder is sprinkled over any metalliferous ore which does
not easily melt when we are assaying it, and it causes the slag to exude.
Others, in place of litharge, substitute lead ash,
following way: sulphur is thrown into lead which has been melted in a
crucible, and it soon becomes covered with a sort of scum; when this is
removed, sulphur is again thrown in, and the skin which forms is again taken
off; this is frequently repeated, in fact until all the lead is turned into
powder. There is a powerful flux compound which is made from one
each of prepared saltpetre, melted salt, glass-gall, and argol, and one-third
of an
added to an equal weight of ore, liquefies it. A more powerful flux is made by
placing together in a pot, smeared on the inside with litharge, equal portions
of white argol, common salt, and prepared saltpetre, and these are heated
until a white powder is obtained from them, and this is mixed with as much
litharge; one part of this compound is mixed with two parts of the ore which
is to be assayed. A still more powerful flux than this is made out of ashes
of black lead, saltpetre, orpiment,
which gold workers separate gold from silver. The ashes of lead
one pound of lead and one pound of sulphur; the lead is flattened out into
sheets by pounding with a hammer, and placed alternately with sulphur in a
crucible or pot, and they are heated together until the fire consumes the
sulphur and the lead turns to ashes. One
with one
in an iron pan until they liquefy; they are then poured out, and after cool
ing are again ground to powder. A
dried lees (
point at which they form a button, which is similarly reduced to powder. A
powder made out of the saltpetre and orpiment, are mixed together and a
liquefies it and cleanses it of dross. But the most powerful flux is one which
has two
the following,—
prepared saltpetre, litharge, vitriol, argol, salt obtained from ashes of musk ivy,
dried lees of the
alum reduced by fire to powder, and one
sulphur and ground into powder. A half or whole portion of this mixture,
as the necessity of the case requires, is mixed with one portion of the ore
and two portions of lead, and put in a scorifier; it is sprinkled with powder
of crushed Venetian glass, and when the mixture has been heated for an hour
and a half or two hours, a button will settle in the bottom of the scorifier, and
from it the lead is soon separated.
There is also a flux which separates sulphur, orpiment and realgar from
metalliferous ore. This flux is composed of equal portions of iron slag,
white After these juices have been secreted, the ores
themselves are melted, with argol added to them. There is one flux which
preserves
which preserves the metals from the
portions of sulphur, prepared saltpetre, melted salt, and vitriol, heated
together in lye until no odour emanates from the sulphur, which occurs after
a space of three or four hours.
It is also worth while to substitute certain other mixtures.
Take two
portions of ore properly prepared, one portion of iron filings, and likewise
one portion of salt, and mix; then put them into a scorifier and place them
in a muffle furnace; when they are reduced by the fire and run together, a
button will settle in the bottom of the scorifier. Or else take equal portions
of ore and of lead ochre, and mix with them a small quantity of iron filings,
and put them into a scorifier, then scatter iron filings over the mixture. Or
else take ore which has been ground to powder and sprinkle it in a crucible,
and then sprinkle over it an equal quantity of salt that has been three or
four times moistened with urine and dried; then, again and again alternately,
powdered ore and salt; next, after the crucible has been covered with a
lid and sealed, it is placed upon burning charcoal. Or else take one portion of
ore, one portion of minute lead granules, half a portion of Venetian glass,
and the same quantity of glass-galls. Or else take one portion of ore, one
portion of lead granules, half a portion of salt, one-fourth of a portion of argol,
and the same quantity of lees of the Or else take equal portions of prepared ore and a powder in which there
iron slag Or else take equal portions of gold ore, vitriol, argol, and of salt. So much for the fluxes.
In the assay furnace, when it has been prepared in the way in which I
have described, is first placed a muffle. Then selected pieces of live charcoals
are laid on it, for, from pieces of inferior quality, a great quantity of ash collects
around the muffle and hinders the action of the fire. Then the scorifiers are
placed under the muffle with tongs, and glowing coals are placed under the
fore part of the muffle to warm the scorifiers more quickly; and when the lead
or ore is to be placed in the scorifiers, they are taken out again with the
tongs. When the scorifiers glow in the heat, first of all the ash or small
charcoals, if any have fallen into them, should be blown away with an iron
pipe two feet long and a digit in diameter; this same thing must be done
if ash or small coal has fallen into the cupels. Next, put in a small ball of lead
with the tongs, and when this lead has begun to be turned into fumes and
consumed, add to it the prepared ore wrapped in paper. It is preferable that
the assayer should wrap it in paper, and in this way put it in the scorifier,
than that he should drop it in with a copper ladle; for when the
scorifiers are small, if he uses a ladle he frequently spills some part of the
ore. When the paper is burnt, he stirs the ore with a small charcoal held in
the tongs, so that the lead may absorb the metal which is mixed in the ore;
when this mixture has taken place, the slag partly adheres by its cir
cumference to the scorifier and makes a kind of black ring, and partly
floats on the lead in which is mixed the gold or silver; then the slag must
be removed from it.
The lead used must be entirely free from every trace of silver, as is that
which is known as
must be assayed separately, to determine with certainty that proportion of
silver it contains, so that it may be deducted from the calculation of the
ore, and the result be exact; for unless such lead be used, the assay will be
false and misleading. The lead balls are made with a pair of iron tongs,
about one foot long; its iron claws are so formed that when pressed
together they are egg-shaped; each claw contains a hollow cup, and when
the claws are closed there extends upward from the cup a passage, so there
are two openings, one of which leads to each hollow cup. And so when the
molten lead is poured in through the openings, it flows down into the hollow
cup, and two balls are formed by one pouring.
In this place I ought not to omit mention of another method of assaying
employed by some assayers. They first of all place prepared ore in the
scorifiers and heat it, and afterward they add the lead. Of this method I
cannot approve, for in this way the ore frequently becomes cemented, and
for this reason it does not stir easily afterward, and is very slow in mixing
with the lead.
If the whole space of the furnace covered by the muffle is not filled with
scorifiers, cupels are put in the empty space, in order that they may become
warmed in the meantime. Sometimes, however, it is filled with scorifiers,
when we are assaying many different ores, or many portions of one ore at the
same time. Although the cupels are usually dried in one hour, yet smaller
ones are done more quickly, and the larger ones more slowly. Unless the
cupels are heated before the metal mixed with lead is placed in them, they
A—CLAWS OF THE TONGS. B—IRON, GIVING FORM OF AN EGG. C—OPENING.
frequently break, and the lead always sputters and sometimes leaps out of them;
if the cupel is broken or the lead leaps out of it, it is necessary to assay
another portion of ore; but if the lead only sputters, then the cupels should
be covered with broad thin pieces of glowing charcoal, and when the lead
strikes these, it falls back again, and thus the mixture is slowly exhaled. Further, if in the cupellation the lead which is in the mixture is not con
sumed, but remains fixed and set, and is covered by a kind of skin, this is a
sign that it has not been heated by a sufficiently hot fire; put into the
mixture, therefore, a dry pine stick, or a twig of a similar tree, and hold it
in the hand in order that it can be drawn away when it has been heated. Then take care that the heat is sufficient and equal; if the heat has not
passed all round the charge, as it should when everything is done rightly,
but causes it to have a lengthened shape, so that it appears to have a tail,
this is a sign that the heat is deficient where the tail lies. Then in order
that the cupel may be equally heated by the fire, turn it around with a small
iron hook, whose handle is likewise made of iron and is a foot and a half long.
SMALL IRON HOOK.
Next, if the mixture has not enough lead, add as much of it as is required
with the iron tongs, or with the brass ladle to which is fastened a very long
handle. In order that the charge may not be cooled, warm the lead beforehand.
needs melting, rather than afterward when the melting has been half finished,
that the whole quantity may not vanish in fumes, but part of it remain
fast. When the heat of the fire has nearly consumed the lead, then is the
time when the gold and silver gleam in their varied colours, and when all the
lead has been consumed the gold or silver settles in the cupel. Then as
soon as possible remove the cupel out of the furnace, and take the button out
of it while it is still warm, in order that it does not adhere to the ashes. This
generally happens if the button is already cold when it is taken out. If the
ashes do adhere to it, do not scrape it with a knife, lest some of it be lost and
the assay be erroneous, but squeeze it with the iron tongs, so that the ashes
drop off through the pressure. Finally, it is of advantage to make two or
three assays of the same ore at the same time, in order that if by chance
one is not successful, the second, or in any event the third, may be certain.
While the assayer is assaying the ore, in order to prevent the great heat
of the fire from injuring his eyes, it will be useful for him always to have
ready a thin wooden tablet, two palms wide, with a handle by which it may
be held, and with a slit down the middle in order that he may look through
it as through a crack, since it is necessary for him to look frequently within
and carefully to consider everything.
A—HANDLE OF TABLET. B—ITS CRACK.
Now the lead which has absorbed the silver from a metallic ore is con
sumed in the cupel by the heat in the space of three quarters of an hour. When
the assays are completed the muffle is taken out of the furnace, and the
ashes removed with an iron shovel, not only from the brick and iron furnaces,
but also from the earthen one, so that the furnace need not be removed from
its foundation.
From ore placed in the triangular crucible a button is melted out, from
which metal is afterward made. First of all, glowing charcoal is put into
the iron hoop, then is put in the triangular crucible, which contains the ore
together with those things which can liquefy it and purge it of its dross;
then the fire is blown with the double bellows, and the ore is heated until
the button settles in the bottom of the crucible. We have explained that
there are two methods of assaying ore,—one, by which the lead is mixed
the other, by which it is first melted in the triangular earthen crucible and
afterward mixed with lead in the scorifier, and later separated from it in the
cupel. Now let us consider which is more suitable for each ore, or, if neither
is suitable, by what other method in one way or another we can assay it.
We justly begin with a gold ore, which we assay by both methods, for
if it is rich and seems not to be strongly resistant to fire, but to liquefy easily,
one
one and a half, or two
and placed in the scorifier, and the two are heated in the fire until they are
well mixed. But since such an ore sometimes resists melting, add a little
salt to it, either
prevent the alloy from collecting much dross; stir it frequently with an iron
rod, in order that the lead may flow around the gold on every side, and absorb
it and cast out the waste. When this has been done, take out the alloy and
cleanse it of slag; then place it in the cupel and heat it until it exhales all
the lead, and a bead of gold settles in the bottom.
If the gold ore is seen not to be easily melted in the fire, roast it and
extinguish it with brine. Do this again and again, for the more often you
roast it and extinguish it, the more easily the ore can be crushed fine, and the
more quickly does it melt in the fire and give up whatever dross it possesses.
three parts of some powder compound which melts ore, and six parts of lead. Put the charge into the triangular crucible, place it in the iron hoop to which
the double bellows reaches, and heat first in a slow fire, and afterward
gradually in a fiercer fire, till it melts and flows like water. If the ore does
not melt, add to it a little more of these fluxes, mixed with an equal portion
of yellow litharge, and stir it with a hot iron rod until it all melts. Then
take the crucible out of the hoop, shake off the button when it has cooled,
and when it has been cleansed, melt first in the scorifier and afterward in
the cupel. Finally, rub the gold which has settled in the bottom of the cupel,
after it has been taken out and cooled, on the touchstone, in order to find out
what proportion of silver it contains. Another method is to put a
pondium
add to it a If it resists melting,
add half a
same quantity of roasted lees of vinegar, or lees of the
gold from silver, and the button will settle in the bottom of the crucible. Melt this button again in the scorifier and a third time in the cupel.
We determine in the following way, before it is melted in the muffle
furnace, whether pyrites contains gold in it or not: if, after being three times
roasted and three times quenched in sharp vinegar, it has not broken nor
changed its colour, there is gold in it. The vinegar by which it is quenched
should be mixed with salt that is put in it, and frequently stirred and dissolved
for three days. Nor is pyrites devoid of gold, when, after being roasted and
then rubbed on the touchstone, it colours the touchstone in the same way that
it coloured it when rubbed in its crude state. Nor is gold lacking in that,
whose concentrates from washing, when heated in the fire, easily melt, giving
forth little smell and remaining bright; such concentrates are heated in the
fire in a hollowed piece of charcoal covered over with another charcoal.
We also assay gold ore without fire, but more often its sand or the con
centrates which have been made by washing, or the dust gathered up by
some other means. A little of it is slightly moistened with water and heated
until it begins to exhale an odour, and then to one portion of ore are placed
two portions of quicksilverThey are
mixed together with a little brine, and are then ground with a wooden pestle
for the space of two hours, until the mixture becomes of the thickness of dough,
and the quicksilver can no longer be distinguished from the concentrates
made by the washing, nor the concentrates from the quicksilver. Warm, or
at least tepid, water is poured into the dish and the material is washed until
the water runs out clear. Afterward cold water is poured into the same dish,
and soon the quicksilver, which has absorbed all the gold, runs together
into a separate place away from the rest of the concentrates made by
washing. The quicksilver is afterward separated from the gold by means
of a pot covered with soft leather, or with canvas made of woven
threads of cotton; the amalgam is poured into the middle of the cloth or
over and tied with a waxed string, and the dish catches the quicksilver
which is squeezed through it. As for the gold which remains in the leather,
it is placed in a scorifier and purified by being placed near glowing coals. Others
do not wash away the dirt with warm water, but with strong lye and vinegar,
for they pour these liquids into the pot, and also throw into it the quicksilver
mixed with the concentrates made by washing. Then they set the pot in a
warm place, and after twenty-four hours pour out the liquids with the dirt, and
separate the quicksilver from the gold in the manner which I have described. Then they pour urine into a jar set in the ground, and in the jar place a
pot with holes in the bottom, and in the pot they place the gold; then the
lid is put on and cemented, and it is joined with the jar; they afterward heat
it till the pot glows red. After it has cooled, if there is copper in the gold
they melt it with lead in a cupel, that the copper may be separated from it;
but if there is silver in the gold they separate them by means of the
which has the power of parting these two metals. There are some who,
when they separate gold from quicksilver, do not pour the amalgam into
a leather, but put it into a gourd-shaped earthen vessel, which they place
in the furnace and heat gradually over burning charcoal; next, with an iron
plate, they cover the opening of the operculum, which exudes vapour, and as
soon as it has ceased to exude, they smear it with lute and heat it for a short
time; then they remove the operculum from the pot, and wipe off the
quicksilver which adheres to it with a hare's foot, and preserve it for future
use. By the latter method, a greater quantity of quicksilver is lost, and by
the former method, a smaller quantity.
If an ore is rich in silver, as is
or rarely ruby silver, gray silver, black silver, brown silver, or yellow silver,
as soon as it is cleansed and heated, a
it is placed in an
exhales. But if the ore is of poor or moderate quality, it must first be dried,
then crushed, and then to a
of lead is added, and it is heated in the scorifier until it melts. If it is not
soon melted by the fire, it should be sprinkled with a little powder of the
first order of fluxes, and if then it does not melt, more is added little by little
until it melts and exudes its slag; that this result may be reached sooner,
the powder which has been sprinkled over it should be stirred in with an iron
rod. When the scorifier has been taken out of the assay furnace, the alloy
should be poured into a hole in a baked brick; and when it has cooled and been
cleansed of the slag, it should be placed in a cupel and heated until it exhales
all its lead; the weight of silver which remains in the cupel indicates what
proportion of silver is contained in the ore.
We assay copper ore without lead, for if it is melted with it, the copper
usually exhales and is lost. Therefore, a certain weight of such an ore
cooled, it is crushed and washed; then the concentrates made by washing
are again roasted, crushed, washed, dried, and weighed. The portion which
it has lost whilst it is being roasted and washed is taken into account, and
these concentrates by washing represent the cake which will be melted out
of the copper ore. Place three
with three
and Venetian glass, mixed, into the triangular crucible, and place it in the iron
hoop which is set on the hearth in front of the double bellows. Cover the crucible
with charcoal in such a way that nothing may fall into the ore which is to be
melted, and so that it may melt more quickly. At first blow a gentle blast with
the bellows in order that the ore may be heated gradually in the fire; then
blow strongly till it melts, and the fire consumes that which has been added to
it, and the ore itself exudes whatever slag it possesses. Next, cool
the crucible which has been taken out, and when this is broken you will find
the copper; weigh this, in order to ascertain how great a portion of the ore
the fire has consumed. Some ore is only once roasted, crushed, and washed;
and of this kind of concentrates, three
taken with one
galls. Heat them in the triangular crucible, and when the mixture has
cooled a button of pure copper will be found, if the ore is rich in this metal. If, however, it is less rich, a stony lump results, with which the copper is
intermixed; this lump is again roasted, crushed, and, after adding stones
which easily melt and saltpetre, it is again melted in another crucible, and
there settles in the bottom of the crucible a button of pure copper. If you
wish to know what proportion of silver is in this copper button, melt it in a
cupel after adding lead. With regard to this test I will speak later.
Those who wish to know quickly what portion of silver the copper ore
contains, roast the ore, crush and wash it, then mix a little yellow litharge
with one
mixture into a scorifier, which they place under the muffle in a hot furnace for
the space of half an hour. When the slag exudes, by reason of the melting force
which is in the litharge, they take the scorifier out; when it has cooled, they
cleanse it of slag and again crush it, and with one
mix one and a half They then put it into another
scorifier, which they place under the muffle in a hot furnace, adding to the
mixture a little of the powder of some one of the fluxes which cause ore to
melt; when it has melted they take it out, and after it has cooled, cleanse
it of slag; lastly, they heat it in the cupel till it has exhaled all of the lead,
and only silver remains.
Lead ore may be assayed by this method: crush half an
pure lead-stone and the same quantity of the
borax, mix them together, place them in a crucible, and put a glowing coal As soon as the borax crackles and the lead-stone melts,
which soon occurs, remove the coal from the crucible, and the lead will settle
to the bottom of it; weigh it out, and take account of that portion of it
which the fire has consumed. If you also wish to know what portion of silver
is contained in the lead, melt the lead in the cupel until all of it exhales.
Another way is to roast the lead ore, of whatsoever quality it be, wash
it, and put into the crucible one
with three
together, and place it in the iron hoop that it may melt; when it has cooled,
cleanse it of its slag, and complete the test as I have already said. Another way is
to take two
glass, or glass-galls reduced to powder, a Put
the mixture into the triangular crucible, and heat it over a gentle fire to
prevent it from breaking; when the mixture has melted, blow the fire
vigorously with the bellows; then take the crucible off the live coals and
let it cool in the open air; do not pour water on it, lest the lead button being
acted upon by the excessive cold should become mixed with the slag, and the
assay in this way be erroneous. When the crucible has cooled, you will find
in the bottom of it the lead button. Another way is to take two
ore, a
of saltpetre. If there is difficulty in melting the ore, add to it iron filings,
which, since they increase the heat, easily separate the waste from lead and
other metals. By the last way, lead ore properly prepared is placed in the
crucible, and there is added to it only the sand made from stones which easily
melt, or iron filings, and then the assay is completed as formerly.
You can assay tin ore by the following method.
First roast it, then
crush, and afterward wash it; the concentrates are again roasted, crushed,
and washed. Mix one and a half
pondium
when it has been moistened with water, make a lump. Afterwards,
perforate a large round piece of charcoal, making this opening a palm deep,
three digits wide on the upper side and narrower on the lower side; when
the charcoal is put in its place the latter should be on the bottom and the
former uppermost. Let it be placed in a crucible, and let glowing coal be
put round it on all sides; when the perforated piece of coal begins to burn,
the lump is placed in the upper part of the opening, and it is covered with a
wide piece of glowing coal, and after many pieces of coal have been put round
it, a hot fire is blown up with the bellows, until all the tin has run out
of the lower opening of the charcoal into the crucible. Another way is to
take a large piece of charcoal, hollow it out, and smear it with lute, that the
ore may not leap out when white hot. Next, make a small hole through the
middle of it, then fill up the large opening with small charcoal, and put the
ore upon this; put fire in the small hole and blow the fire with the nozzle of
a hand bellows; place the piece of charcoal in a small crucible, smeared
with lute, in which, when the melting is finished, you will find a button
of tin.
In assaying bismuth ore, place pieces of ore in the scorifier, and put
it under the muffle in a hot furnace; as soon as they are heated, they
drip with bismuth, which runs together into a button.
Quicksilver ore is usually tested by mixing one part of broken ore
with three-parts of charcoal dust and a handful of salt. Put the mixture into
a crucible or a pot or a jar, cover it with a lid, seal it with lute, place it on
glowing charcoal, and as soon as a burnt cinnabar colour shows in it, take
out the vessel; for if you continue the heat too long the mixture exhales the
quicksilver with the fumes. The quicksilver itself, when it has become cool, is
found in the bottom of the crucible or other vessel. Another way is to place
broken ore in a gourd-shaped earthen vessel, put it in the assay furnace,
and cover with an operculum which has a long spout; under the spout, put
an ampulla to receive the quicksilver which distills. Cold water should be
poured into the ampulla, so that the quicksilver which has been heated by the
fire may be continuously cooled and gathered together, for the quicksilver
is borne over by the force of the fire, and flows down through the spout of
the operculum into the ampulla. We also assay quicksilver ore in the very
same way in which we smelt it. This I will explain in its proper place.
Lastly, we assay iron ore in the forge of a blacksmith.
Such ore is burned,
crushed, washed, and dried; a magnet is laid over the concentrates, and
the particles of iron are attracted to it; these are wiped off with a brush,
and are caught in a crucible, the magnet being continually passed over the
concentrates and the particles wiped off, so long as there remain any particles
which the magnet can attract to it. These particles are heated in the crucible
with saltpetre until they melt, and an iron button is melted out of them. If the magnet easily and quickly attracts the particles to it, we infer that the
ore is rich in iron; if slowly, that it is poor; if it appears actually to repel
the ore, then it contains little or no iron. This is enough for the assaying of
ores.
I will now speak of the assaying of the metal alloys.
This is done both
by coiners and merchants who buy and sell metal, and by miners, but most
of all by the owners and mine masters, and by the owners and masters of
the works in which the metals are smelted, or in which one metal is parted
from another.
First I will describe the way assays are usually made to ascertain what
portion of precious metal is contained in base metal. Gold and silver are
now reckoned as precious metals and all the others as base metals. Once
upon a time the base metals were burned up, in order that the precious metals
should be left pure; the Ancients even discovered by such burning what
portion of gold was contained in silver, and in this way all the silver was
consumed, which was no small loss. However, the famous mathematician,
Archimedes
than a small one. This I will explain in my commentaries.
The
alchemists have shown us a way of separating silver from gold by which
neither of them is lost
Gold which contains silver,
on the touchstone. Then a needle in which there is a similar amount of
gold or silver is rubbed on the same touchstone, and from the lines which are
produced in this way, is perceived what portion of silver there is in the gold,
or what portion of gold there is in the silver. Next there is added to the
silver which is in the gold, enough silver to make it three times as much as the
gold. Then lead is placed in a cupel and melted; a little later, a small
amount of copper is put in it, in fact, half an
a
copper. The cupel, when the lead and copper are wanting, attracts the particles
of gold and silver, and absorbs them. Finally, one-third of a
and one
melted; for if the gold and silver were first placed in the cupel and melted, as I
have already said, it absorbs particles of them, and the gold, when separated
from the silver, will not be found pure. These metals are heated until the
lead and the copper are consumed, and again, the same weight of each is melted
in the same manner in another cupel. The buttons are pounded with a
hammer and flattened out, and each little leaf is shaped in the form of a
tube, and each is put into a small glass ampulla. Over these there is poured
one
valens,This is heated over a slow
fire, and small bubbles, resembling pearls in shape, will be seen to adhere
to the tubes. The redder the
when the redness has vanished, small white bubbles are seen to be resting
on the tubes, resembling pearls not only in shape, but also in colour. After
a short time the
again raised six or eight small white bubbles, it is poured off and the tubes are
taken out and washed four or five times with spring water; or if they are
heated with the same water, when it is boiling, they will shine more brilliantly. Then they are placed in a saucer, which is held in the hand and gradually
dried by the gentle heat of the fire; afterward the saucer is placed over glowing
charcoal and covered with a charcoal, and a moderate blast is blown upon it In the end the tubes
are weighed, and if their weights prove equal, he who has undertaken this work
has not laboured in vain. Lastly, both are placed in another balance-pan and
weighed; of each tube four grains must not be counted, on account of the
silver which remains in the gold and cannot be separated from it. From the
weight of the tubes we learn the weight both of the gold and of the silver
which is in the button. If some assayer has omitted to add so much silver to
the gold as to make it three times the quantity, but only double, or two and a
half times as much, he will require the stronger quality of
separates gold from silver, such as the fourth quality. Whether the
which he employs for gold and silver is suitable for the purpose, or whether
it is more or less strong than is right, is recognised by its effect. That of
medium strength raises the little bubbles on the tubes and is found to colour
the ampulla and the operculum a strong red; the weaker one is found to
colour them a light red, and the stronger one to break the tubes. To pure
silver in which there is some portion of gold, nothing should be added when
they are being heated in the cupel prior to their being parted, except a
of lead and one-fourth or one-third its amount of copper of the lesser weights. If the silver contains in itself a certain amount of copper, let it be weighed,
both after it has been melted with the lead, and after the gold has been parted
from it; by the former we learn how much copper is in it, by the latter how
much gold. Base metals are burnt up even to-day for the purpose of assay,
because to lose so little of the metal is small loss, but from a large mass of
base metal, the precious metal is always extracted, as I will explain in
Books X. and XI.
We assay an alloy of copper and silver in the following way.
From a
few cakes of copper the assayer cuts out portions, small samples from small
cakes, medium samples from medium cakes, and large samples from large
cakes; the small ones are equal in size to half a hazel nut, the large
ones do not exceed the size of half a chestnut, and those of medium size come
between the two. He cuts out the samples from the middle of the
bottom of each cake. He places the samples in a new, clean, triangular
crucible and fixes to them pieces of paper upon which are written the weight
of the cakes of copper, of whatever size they may be; for example, he writes,
“These samples have been cut from copper which weighs twenty
pondía.”
copper of this kind has in it, first of all he throws glowing coals into the
iron hoop, then adds charcoal to it. When the fire has become hot, the paper
is taken out of the crucible and put aside, he then sets that crucible on the
fire and gradually heats it for a quarter of an hour until it becomes red hot. Then he stimulates the fire by blowing with a blast from the double bellows
for half an hour, because copper which is devoid of lead requires this time to
become hot and to melt; copper not devoid of lead melts quicker. When
he has blown the bellows for about the space of time stated, he removes the
glowing charcoal with the tongs, and stirs the copper with a splinter of wood,
which he grasps with the tongs. If it does not stir easily, it is a sign that the
large piece of charcoal in the crucible, and replaces the glowing charcoal which
had been removed, and again blows the bellows for a short time. When all
the copper has melted he stops using the bellows, for if he were to continue
to use them, the fire would consume part of the copper, and then that which
remained would be richer than the cake from which it had been cut; this is
no small mistake. Therefore, as soon as the copper has become sufficiently
liquified, he pours it out into a little iron mould, which may be large or small,
according as more or less copper is melted in the crucible for the purpose of the
assay. The mould has a handle, likewise made of iron, by which it is held
when the copper is poured in, after which, he plunges it into a tub of water
placed near at hand, that the copper may be cooled. Then he again dries the
copper by the fire, and cuts off its point with an iron wedge; the portion
nearest the point he hammers on an anvil and makes into a leaf, which he
cuts into pieces.
A—IRON MOULD. B—ITS HANDLE.
Others stir the molten copper with a stick of linden tree charcoal, and
then pour it over a bundle of new clean birch twigs, beneath which is placed
a wooden tub of sufficient size and full of water, and in this manner the copper
is broken up into little granules as small as hemp seeds. Others employ straw
in place of twigs. Others place a broad stone in a tub and pour in enough
water to cover the stone, then they run out the molten copper from the
crucible on to the stone, from which the minute granules roll off; others
pour the molten copper into water and stir it until it is resolved into granules. The fire does not easily melt the copper in the cupel unless it has been poured
and a thin leaf made of it, or unless it has been resolved into granules or
made into filings; and if it does not melt, all the labour has been undertaken
in vain. In order that they may be accurately weighed out, silver and lead
are resolved into granules in the same manner as copper. But to return
to the assay of copper. When the copper has been prepared by these
methods, if it is free of lead and iron, and rich in silver, to each
díum
however, the copper contains some lead, add one
iron, add two First put the lead into a cupel, and after it begins
to smoke, add the copper; the fire generally consumes the copper, together
with the lead, in about one hour and a quarter. When this is done, the silver
The fire consumes both of those
metals more quickly if they are heated in that furnace which draws in air. It
is better to cover the upper half of it with a lid, and not only to put on the
muffle door, but also to close the window of the muffle door with a piece of
charcoal, or with a piece of brick. If the copper be such that the silver can
only be separated from it with difficulty, then before it is tested with fire in
the cupel, lead should first be put into the scorifier, and then the copper should
be added with a moderate quantity of melted salt, both that the lead may
absorb the copper and that the copper may be cleansed of the dross which
abounds in it.
Tin which contains silver should not at the beginning of the assay be
placed in a cupel, lest the silver, as often happens, be consumed and converted
into fumes, together with the tin. As soon as the lead
in the scorifier, then add thatIn this way the lead will take the
silver and the tin will boil and turn into ashes, which may be removed with a
wooden splinter. The same thing occurs if any alloy is melted in which there
is tin. When the lead has absorbed the silver which was in the tin, then,
and not till then, it is heated in the cupel. First place the lead with which
the silver is mixed, in an iron pan, and stand it on a hot furnace and let it
melt; afterward pour this lead into a small iron mould, and then beat it
out with a hammer on an anvil and make it into leaves in the same way as
the copper. Lastly, place it in the cupel, which assay can be carried out in
the space of half an hour. A great heat is harmful to it, for which reason
there is no necessity either to cover the half of the furnace with a lid or to
close up its mouth.
The minted metal alloys, which are known as money, are assayed in the
following way. The smaller silver coins which have been picked out from
the bottom and top and sides of a heap are first carefully cleansed; then, after
they have been melted in the triangular crucible, they are either resolved
into granules, or made into thin leaves. As for the large coins which weigh
a Then take a
take another Wrap each sample separately in paper,
and afterwards place two small pieces of lead in two cupels which have first
been heated. The more precious the money is, the smaller portion of lead
do we require for the assay, the more base, the larger is the portion required;
for if a
we add to the If it is composed of equal
parts of silver and copper, we add an
there is only half an
of lead. As soon as the lead has begun to fume, put into each cupel one of
the papers in which is wrapped the sample of silver alloyed with copper, and
close the mouth of the muffle with charcoal. Heat them with a gentle fire
until all the lead and copper are consumed, for a hot fire by its heat forces the
the assay is rendered erroneous. Then take the beads out of the cupel and
clean them of dross. If neither depresses the pan of the balance in which it
is placed, but their weight is equal, the assay has been free from error; but
if one bead depresses its pan, then there is an error, for which reason the
assay must be repeated. If the
pure silver it is because the King, or Prince, or the State who coins the money,
has taken one
expense of coining, he having added copper to the silver. Of all these
matters I have written extensively in my book
Monetís.
We assay gold coins in various ways.
If there is copper mixed with
the gold, we melt them by fire in the same way as silver coins; if there is
silver mixed with the gold, they are separated by the strongest
if there is copper and silver mixed with the gold, then in the first place, after
the addition of lead, they are heated in the cupel until the fire consumes the
copper and the lead, and afterward the gold is parted from the silver.
It remains to speak of the touchstone
tested, and which was also used by the Ancients. For although the assay made
by fire is more certain, still, since we often have no furnace, nor muffle, nor
crucibles, or some delay must be occasioned in using them, we can always
rub gold or silver on the touchstone, which we can have in readiness. Further, when gold coins are assayed in the fire, of what use are they after
ward? A touchstone must be selected which is thoroughly black and free
of sulphur, for the blacker it is and the more devoid of sulphur, the better it First the gold is
rubbed on the touchstone, whether it contains silver or whether it is obtained
from the mines or from the smelting; silver also is rubbed in the same
way. Then one of the needles, that we judge by its colour to be of similar
composition, is rubbed on the touchstone; if this proves too pale, another
needle which has a stronger colour is rubbed on the touchstone; and if this
proves too deep in colour, a third which has a little paler colour is used. For
this will show us how great a proportion of silver or copper, or silver and
copper together, is in the gold, or else how great a proportion of copper is in
silver.
These needles are of four kinds.
silver, the second of gold and copper, the third of gold, silver, and copper,
and the fourth of silver and copper. The first three kinds of needles are
used principally for testing gold, and the fourth for silver. Needles of this
kind are prepared in the following ways. The lesser weights correspond
proportionately to the larger weights, and both of them are used, not
only by mining people, but by coiners also. The needles are made in
accordance with the lesser weights, and each set corresponds to a
which, in our own vocabulary, is called a The
by those who coin gold, is divided into twenty-four double
divided into four
is divided into three units of four
a If we made the needles to be each four
two hundred and eighty-eight in a
or a double By these two
methods too many needles would be made, and the majority of them, by reason
of the small difference in the proportion of the gold, would indicate nothing,
therefore it is advisable to make them each of a double
twenty-four needles are made, of which the first is made of twenty-three Fannius is our authority that the Ancients
called the double When a bar of silver is rubbed on the
touchstone and colours it just as this needle does, it contains one In this manner we determine by the other needles what proportion of gold
there is, or when the gold exceeds the silver in weight, what proportion of
silver.
The needles are made
The 1st needle of 23
The 2nd needle of 22
The 3rd needle of 21
The 4th needle of 20
The 5th needle of 19
The 6th needle of 18
The 7th needle of 17
The 8th needle of 16
The 9th needle of 15
The 10th needle of 14
The 11th needle of 13
The 12th needle of 12
The 13th needle of 11
The 14th needle of 10
The 15th needle of 9
The 16th needle of 8
The 17th needle of 7
The 18th needle of 6
The 19th needle of 5
The 20th needle of 4
The 21st needle of 3
The 22nd needle of 2
The 23rd needle of 1
The 24th needle of pure gold
By the first eleven needles, when they are rubbed on the touchstone, we
test what proportion of gold a bar of silver contains, and with the remaining
thirteen we test what proportion of silver is in a bar of gold; and also what
proportion of either may be in money.
Since some gold coins are composed of gold and copper, thirteen needles
of another kind are made as follows:—
The 1st of 12
The 2nd of 13
The 3rd of 14
The 4th of 15
The 5th of 16
The 6th of 17
The 7th of 18
The 8th of 19
The 9th of 20
The 10th of 21
The 11th of 22
The 12th of 23
The 13th of pure gold.
These needles are not much used, because gold coins of that kind are
somewhat rare; the ones chiefly used are those in which there is much
copper. Needles of the third kind, which are composed of gold, silver, and
copper, are more largely used, because such gold coins are common. But since
with the gold there are mixed equal or unequal portions of silver and copper,
two sorts of needles are made. If the proportion of silver and copper is
equal, the needles are as follows:—
Some make twenty-five needles, in order to be able to detect the two
Of these needles, the
first is composed of twelve
number of copper. The second, of twelve
five The remaining needles are
made in the same proportion.
Pliny is our authority that the Romans could tell to within one
how much gold was in any given alloy, and how much silver or copper.
Needles may be made in either of two ways, namely, in the ways of which
I have spoken, and in the ways of which I am now about to speak. If
seven needles are made in the following way:—
Since it is rarely found that gold, which has been coined, does not amount to
at least fifteen
some make them different from those already described, inasmuch as the
alloy of gold with silver and copper is sometimes differently proportioned.
These needles are made:—
Next follows the fourth kind of needles, by which we test silver coins
which contain copper, or copper coins which contain silver. The
which we weigh the silver is divided in two different ways. It is either
divided twelve times, into units of five
into twenty-four units of four
call a
are called Or else the
sixteen
each Needles are made in accordance with
each method of dividing the According to the first method, to the
number of twenty-four half
number of thirty-one half
needles were made to the number of the smaller weights, the number of
needles would again be too large, and not a few of them, by reason of the
small difference in proportion of silver or copper, would have no significance. We test both bars and coined money composed of silver and copper by both
scales. The one is as follows: the first needle is made of twenty-three
parts of copper and one part silver; whereby, whatsoever bar or coin, when
rubbed on the touchstone, colours it just as this needle does, in that bar or
money there is one twenty-fourth part of silver, and so also, in accordance
with the proportion of silver, is known the remaining proportion of the copper.
The 1st needle is made of 23 parts of copper and 1 of silver.
The 2nd needle is made of 22 parts of copper and 2 of silver.
The 3rd needle is made of 21 parts of copper and 3 of silver.
The 4th needle is made of 20 parts of copper and 4 of silver.
The 5th needle is made of 19 parts of copper and 5 of silver.
The 6th needle is made of 18 parts of copper and 6 of silver.
The 7th needle is made of 17 parts of copper and 7 of silver.
The 8th needle is made of 16 parts of copper and 8 of silver.
The 9th needle is made of 15 parts of copper and 9 of silver.
The 10th needle is made of 14 parts of copper and 10 of silver.
The 11th needle is made of 13 parts of copper and 11 of silver.
The 12th needle is made of 12 parts of copper and 12 of silver.
The 13th needle is made of 11 parts of copper and 13 of silver.
The 14th needle is made of 10 parts of copper and 14 of silver.
The 15th needle is made of 9 parts of copper and 15 of silver.
The 16th needle is made of 8 parts of copper and 16 of silver.
The 17th needle is made of 7 parts of copper and 17 of silver.
The 18th needle is made of 6 parts of copper and 18 of silver.
The 19th needle is made of 5 parts of copper and 19 of silver.
The 20th needle is made of 4 parts of copper and 20 of silver.
The 21st needle is made of 3 parts of copper and 21 of silver.
The 22nd needle is made of 2 parts of copper and 22 of silver.
The 23rd needle is made of 1 parts of copper and 23 of silver.
The 24th of pure silver.
The other method of making needles is as follows:—
So much for this.
Perhaps I have used more words than those most
highly skilled in the art may require, but it is necessary for the understanding
of these matters.
I will now speak of the weights, of which I have frequently made mention.
Among mining people these are of two kinds, that is, the greater weights and
the lesser weights. The
hundred weight.
The various weights are:—
1st = 100
2nd = 50
3rd = 52
4th = 16
5th = 8
6th = 4
7th = 2
8th = 1
This
the
they divide it, of sixteen
9th = 8
10th = 8
11th = 4
12th = 2
13th = 1
14th = 1
15th = 1
16th = 1
The above is how the “greater” weights are divided.
The “lesser”
weights are made of silver or brass or copper. Of these, the first and largest
generally weighs one
ore, but also metals to be assayed, and smaller quantities of lead. The first
of these weights is called a
corresponds to the larger scale, being likewise one hundred
The 1st is called 1
The 2nd is called 50
The 3rd is called 25
The 4th is called 16
The 5th is called 8
The 6th is called 4
The 7th is called 2
The 8th is called 1
The 9th is called 1
The 10th is called 8
The 11th is called 4
The 12th is called 2
The 13th is called 1
The 14th is called 1
The fourteenth is the last, for the proportionate weights which correspond
with a On all these weights of
the lesser scale, are written the numbers of Some
of a different scale. Their largest weight of the greater scale weighs one
hundred and twelve
1st = 112
2nd = 64
3rd = 32
4th = 16
5th = 8
6th = 4
7th = 2
8th = 1
9th = 1
10th = 8
11th = 4
12th = 2
13th = 1
As for the
said, call a
just like the greater weights scale, into twenty-four units of two
each, and each unit of two
each Some also divide
the separate units of four
omitting the
four Thus
the first and greatest unit of measurement, which is the
four double
The 2nd = 12 double
The 3rd = 6 double
The 4th = 3 double
The 5th = 2 double
The 6th = 1 double
The 7th = 2
The 8th = 1
The 9th = 2 units of four
The 10th = 1 units of four
Coiners who mint silver also divide the
way as the greater weights; our people, indeed, divide it into sixteen
uncíae,
There are ten weights which are placed in the other pan of the balance,
when they weigh the silver which remains from the copper that has been
consumed, when they assay the alloy with fire.
The 1st = 16
The 2nd = 8
The 3rd = 4
The 4th = 2
The 5th = 1
The 6th = 9 units of 4
The 7th = 6 units of 4
The 8th = 3 units of 4
The 9th = 2 units of 4
The 10th = 1 units of 4
The coiners of Nuremberg who mint silver, divide the
uncíae,
four They employ nine weights.
The 1st = 16
The 2nd = 8
The 3rd = 4
The 4th = 2
The 5th = 1
For they divide the
divide the
the 6th weight = 2
the 7th weight = 1
the 8th weight = 2
the 9th weight = 1
The men of Cologne and Antwerp
five Each
of these they again divide into twenty-four units of four
which they call They have ten weights, of which
the 1st = 12
the 2nd = 6
the 3rd = 3
the 4th = 2
the 5th = 1
the 6th = 12 units of 4
the 7th = 6 units of 4
the 8th = 3 units of 4
the 9th = 2 units of 4
the 10th = 1 units of 4
And so with them, just as with our own people, the
two hundred and eighty-eight
divided into two hundred and fifty-six Lastly, the Venetians divide
the The
thirty-six They make twelve weights, which they use whenever they
wish to assay alloys of silver and copper. Of these
the 1st = 8
the 2nd = 4
the 3rd = 2
the 4th = 1
the 5th = 2
the 6th = 1
the 7th = 18
the 8th = 9
the 9th = 6
the 10th = 3
the 11th = 2
the 12th = 1
Since the Venetians divide the
or two hundred and eighty-eight units of 4
our people also divide the
and both agree, even though the Venetians divide the
divisions.
This, then, is the system of weights, both of the greater and the lesser kinds,
which metallurgists employ, and likewise the system of the lesser weights
which coiners and merchants employ, when they are assaying metals and
coined money. The
selves when they weigh large masses of these things, I have explained in my
work
et Monetis.
There are three small balances by which we weigh ore, metals, and
fluxes. The first, by which we weigh lead and fluxes, is the largest among these
smaller balances, and when eight
one of its pans, and the same number in the other, it sustains no damage. The second is more delicate, and by this we weigh the ore or the metal, which
is to be assayed; this is well able to carry one The third is the most delicate, and by this we weigh the beads of gold or
silver, which, when the assay is completed, settle in the bottom of the cupel. But if anyone weighs lead in the second balance, or an ore in the third, he
will do them much injury.
Whatsoever small amount of metal is obtained from a
of the lesser weights of ore or metal alloy, the same greater weight of metal
is smelted from a
A—FIRST SMALL BALANCE. B—SECOND. C—THIRD, PLACED IN A CASE.
END OF BOOK VII.
Questions of assaying were explained in the last
Book, and I have now come to a greater task, that
is, to the description of how we extract the metals. First of all I will explain the method of preparing
the ore
in an impure state, mixed with earth, stones, and
solidified juices, it is necessary to separate most of
these impurities from the ores as far as can be,
before they are smelted, and therefore I will now
describe the methods by which the ores are sorted, broken with hammers,
burnt, crushed with stamps, ground into powder, sifted, washed, roasted,
and calcined
A—LONG TABLE. B—TRAY. C—TUB.
I will start at the beginning with the first sort of work.
Experienced
miners, when they dig the ore, sort the metalliferous material from earth,
stones, and solidified juices before it is taken from the shafts and tunnels,
and they put the valuable metal in trays and the waste into buckets. But
if some miner who is inexperienced in mining matters has omitted to do this,
or even if some experienced miner, compelled by some unavoidable necessity,
has been unable to do so, as soon as the material which has been dug out
has been removed from the mine, all of it should be examined, and that part of
the ore which is rich in metal sorted from that part of it which is devoid of
metal, whether such part be earth, or solidified juices, or stones. To smelt
waste together with an ore involves a loss, for some expenditure is thrown
away, seeing that out of earth and stones only empty and useless slags are
metals and cause loss. The rock which lies contiguous to rich ore should also be
broken into small pieces, crushed, and washed, lest any of the mineral should
be lost. When, either through ignorance or carelessness, the miners while
excavating have mixed the ore with earth or broken rock, the work of sorting
the crude metal or the best ore is done not only by men, but also by boys and
women. They throw the mixed material upon a long table, beside which they
sìt for almost the whole day, and they sort out the ore; when it has been
sorted out, they collect it in trays, and when collected they throw it into
tubs, which are carried to the works in which the ores are smelted.
The metal which is dug out in a pure or crude state, to which class belong
native silver, silver glance, and gray silver, is placed on a stone by the
mine foreman and flattened out by pounding with heavy square hammers. These masses, when they have been thus flattened out like plates, are placed
either on the stump of a tree, and cut into pieces by pounding an iron chisel
into them with a hammer, or else they are cut with an iron tool similar to a
pair of shears. One blade of these shears is three feet long, and is firmly
fixed in a stump, and the other blade which cuts the metal is six feet long.
A—MASSES OF METAL. B—HAMMER. C—CHISEL. D—TREE STUMPS. E—IRON TOOL
SIMILAR TO A PAIR OF SHEARS.
cupellation furnace by the smelters.
Although the miners, in the shafts or tunnels, have sorted over the
material which they mine, still the ore which has been broken down and carried
out must be broken into pieces by a hammer or minutely crushed, so that
the more valuable and better parts can be distinguished from the inferior and
worthless portions. This is of the greatest importance in smelting ore, for
if the ore is smelted without this separation, the valuable part frequently
receives great damage before the worthless part melts in the fire, or else the
one consumes the other; this latter difficulty can, however, be partly
avoided by the exercise of care and partly by the use of fluxes. Now, if a
vein is of poor quality, the better portions which have been broken down and
carried out should be thrown together in one place, and the inferior portion
and the rock thrown away. The sorters place a hard broad stone on a table;
the tables are generally four feet square and made of joined planks, and to
the edge of the sides and back are fixed upright planks, which rise about a
foot from the table; the front, where the sorter sits, is left open. The
A—TABLES. B—UPRIGHT PLANKS. C—HAMMER. D—QUADRANGULAR HAMMER.
E—DEEPER VESSEL. F—SHALLOWER VESSEL. G—IRON ROD.
broken up with a broad, but not thick, hammer; they either break them into
pieces and throw them into one vessel, or they break and sort—whence they
get their name—the more precious from the worthless, throwing and collecting
them separately into different vessels. Other men crush the lumps of ore
less rich in gold or silver, which have likewise been put on the stone, with a
broad thick hammer, and when it has been well crushed, they collect it and
throw it into one vessel. There are two kinds of vessels; one is deeper, and a
little wider in the centre than at the top or bottom; the other is not so deep
though it is broader at the bottom, and becomes gradually a little narrower
toward the top. The latter vessel is covered with a lid, while the former is not
covered; an iron rod through the handles, bent over on either end, is
grasped in the hand when the vessel is carried. But, above all, it behooves
the sorters to be assiduous in their labours.
By another method of breaking ore with hammers, large hard frag
ments of ore are broken before they are burned. The legs of the workmen
—at all events of those who crush pyrites in this manner with large hammers
in Goslar—are protected with coverings resembling leggings, and their hands
A—PYRITES. B—LEGGINGS. C—GLOVES. D—HAMMER.
chips which fly away from the fragments.
In that district of Greater Germany which is called Westphalia and in
that district of Lower Germany which is named Eifel, the broken ore which
has been burned, is thrown by the workmen into a round area paved with the
hardest stones, and the fragments are pounded up with iron tools, which are
very much like hammers in shape and are used like threshing sledges. This
tool is a foot long, a palm wide, and a digit thick, and has an opening in the
middle just as hammers have, in which is fixed a wooden handle of no great
thickness, but up to three and a half feet long, in order that the workmen
can pound the ore with greater force by reason of its weight falling from a
greater height. They strike and pound with the broad side of the tool, in the
same way as corn is pounded out on a threshing floor with the threshing
sledges, although the latter are made of wood and are smooth and fixed to
poles. When the ore has been broken into small pieces, they sweep it
together with brooms and remove it to the works, where it is washed
A—AREA PAVED WITH STONES. B—BROKEN ORE. C—AREA COVERED WITH BROKEN ORE.
D—IRON TOOL. E—ITS HANDLE. F—BROOM. G—SHORT STRAKE. H—WOODEN HOE.
upward with a wooden hoe. The water running down again, carries all
the light particles into a trough placed underneath. I shall deal more fully
with this method of washing a little later.
Ore is burned for two reasons; either that from being hard, it may become
soft and more easily broken and more readily crushed with a hammer or
stamps, and then can be smelted; or that the fatty things, that is to say,
sulphur, bitumen, orpiment, or realgarSulphur is
frequently found in metallic ores, and, generally speaking, is more harmful
to the metals, except gold, than are the other things. It is most harmful of
all to iron, and less to tin than to bismuth, lead, silver, or copper. Since very rarely gold is found in which there is not some silver, even gold
ores containing sulphur ought to be roasted before they are smelted, because,
in a very vigorous furnace fire, sulphur resolves metal into ashes and makes
slag of it. Bitumen acts in the same way, in fact sometimes it consumes
silver, which we may see in bituminous
I now come to the methods of roasting, and first of all to that one which
is common to all ores. The earth is dug out to the required extent, and
thus is made a quadrangular area of fair size, open at the front, and above
this, firewood is laid close together, and on it other wood is laid trans
versely, likewise close together, for which reason our countrymen call this
pile of wood a crate; this is repeated until the pile attains a height of one
or two cubits. Then there is placed upon it a quantity of ore that has been
broken into small pieces with a hammer; first the largest of these pieces,
next those of medium size, and lastly the smallest, and thus is built up a
gently sloping cone. To prevent it from becoming scattered, fine sand of the
A—AREA. B—WOOD. C—ORE. D—CONE-SHAPED PILES. E—CANAL.
same ore is soaked with water and smeared over it and beaten on with shovels;
some workers, if they cannot obtain such fine sand, cover the pile with char
coal-dust, just as do charcoal-burners. But at Goslar, the pile, when it has
been built up in the form of a cone, is smeared with
rubrumIn some districts the ore is roasted once, in others twice, in others three times,
as its hardness may require. At Goslar, when pyrites is roasted for the third
time, that which is placed on the top of the pyre exudes a certain greenish,
dry, rough, thin substance, as I have elsewhere written
easily burned by the fire than is asbestos. Very often also, water is put on
it softer and more easily broken; for after fire has dried up the moisture
in the ore, it breaks up more easily while it is still hot, of which fact burnt
limestone affords the best example.
By digging out the earth they make the areas much larger, and square;
walls should be built along the sides and back to hold the heat of the
fire more effectively, and the front should be left open. In these compart
ments tin ore is roasted in the following manner. First of all wood about
twelve feet long should be laid in the area in four layers, alternately straight
and transverse. Then the larger pieces of ore should be laid upon them, and
on these again the smaller ones, which should also be placed around the sides;
the fine sand of the same ore should also be spread over the pile and pounded
with shovels, to prevent the pile from falling before it has been roasted; the
wood should then be fired.
A—LIGHTED PYRE. B—PYRE WHICH IS BEING CONSTRUCTED. C—ORE. D—WOOD.
E—PILE OF THE SAME WOOD.
Lead ore, if roasting is necessary, should be piled in an area just like the
last, but sloping, and the wood should be placed over it. A tree trunk should
be laid right across the front of the ore to prevent it from falling out. The
ore, being roasted in this way, becomes partly melted and resembles slag.
particle of vitriol has been obtained by heating it in water, is thrown into a
furnace, in which logs are placed. This furnace is very similar to an oven
in shape, in order that when the ore is roasted the valuable contents may not
fly away with the smoke, but may adhere to the roof of the furnace. In this
way sulphur very often hangs like icicles from the two openings of the roof
through which the smoke escapes.
A—BURNING PYRE WHICH IS COMPOSED OF LEAD ORE WITH WOOD PLACED ABOVE IT.
B—WORKMAN THROWING ORE INTO ANOTHER AREA. C—OVEN-SHAPED FURNACE.
D—OPENINGS THROUGH WHICH THE SMOKE ESCAPES.
If pyrites or
deal of sulphur or bitumen, it should be so roasted that neither is lost. For
this purpose it is thrown on an iron plate full of holes, and roasted with char
coal placed on top; three walls support this plate, two on the sides and the
third at the back. Beneath the plate are placed pots containing water, into
which the sulphurous or bituminous vapour descends, and in the water the
fat accumulates and floats on the top. If it is sulphur, it is generally of a
yellow colour; if bitumen, it is black like pitch. If these were not drawn
out they would do much harm to the metal, when the ore is being smelted. When they have thus been separated they prove of some service to man,
especially the sulphurous kind. From the vapour which is carried down, not
A—IRON PLATES FULL OF HOLES. B—WALLS. C—PLATE ON WHICH ORE IS PLACED.
D—BURNING CHARCOAL PLACED ON THE ORE. E—POTS. F—FURNACE. G—MIDDLE
PART OF UPPER CHAMBER. H—THE OTHER TWO COMPARTMENTS. I—DIVISIONS OF THE
LOWER CHAMBER. K—MIDDLE WALL. L—POTS WHICH ARE FILLED WITH ORE. M—LIDS
OF SAME POTS. N—GRATING.
bituminous substance resembling
blown away with a breath. Some employ a vaulted furnace, open at the
front and divided into two chambers. A wall built in the middle of the
furnace divides the lower chamber into two equal parts, in which are set pots
containing water, as above described. The upper chamber is again divided
into three parts, the middle one of which is always open, for in it the wood
is placed, and it is not broader than the middle wall, of which it forms the
topmost portion. The other two compartments have iron doors which are
closed, and which, together with the roof, keep in the heat when the wood
is lighted. In these upper compartments are iron bars which take the place
of a floor, and on these are arranged pots without bottoms, having in
place of a bottom, a grating made of iron wire, fixed to each, through
the openings of which the sulphurous or bituminous vapours roasted from
the ore run into the lower pots. Each of the upper pots holds a hundred
A—HEAP OF CUPRIFEROUS STONES. B—KINDLED HEAP. C—STONES BEING TAKEN TO
THE BEDS OF FAGGOTS.
with lute.
In Eisleben and the neighbourhood, when they roast the schistose
stone from which copper is smelted, and which is not free from bitumen,
they do not use piles of logs, but bundles of faggots. At one time, they used
to pile this kind of stone, when extracted from the pit, on bundles of
faggots and roast it by firing the faggots; nowadays, they first of all
carry these same stones to a heap, where they are left to lie for some time in
such a way as to allow the air and rain to soften them. Then they make a
bed of faggot bundles near the heap, and carry the nearest stones to this
bed; afterward they again place bundles of faggots in the empty place
from which the first stones have been removed, and pile over this extended
bed, the stones which lay nearest to the first lot; and they do this right up to
the end, until all the stones have been piled mound-shape on a bed of faggots. Finally they fire the faggots, not, however, on the side where the wind is
blowing, but on the opposite side, lest the fire blown up by the force of the
wind should consume the faggots before the stones are roasted and made soft;
by this method the stones which are adjacent to the faggots take fire and
communicate it to the next ones, and these again to the adjoining ones, and
in this way the heap very often burns continuously for thirty days or more. This schist rock when rich in copper, as I have said elsewhere, exudes a
substance of a nature similar to asbestos.
Ore is crushed with iron-shod stamps, in order that the metal may be
separated from the stone and the hanging-wall rock.
miners use for this purpose are of four kinds, and are made by the following
method. A block of oak timber six feet long, two feet and a palm square, is
laid on the ground. In the middle of this is fixed a mortar-box, two feet and six
digits long, one foot and six digits deep; the front, which might be called a
and two palms and as many digits wide, each end of which is wedged into the
timber with broad wedges, and the front and back part of it are fixed to the
timber with iron nails. To the sides of the mortar above the block are fixed
two upright posts, whose upper ends are somewhat cut back and are mor
tised to the timbers of the building. Two and a half feet above the mortar
the ends of which are mortised into the upright posts already mentioned. Through each mortise is bored a hole, into which is driven an iron clavis
one end of the clavis has two horns, and the other end is perforated in order
that a wedge driven through, binds the beams more firmly; one horn of the
clavis turns up and the other down. Three and a half feet above the cross-
manner; these cross-beams have square openings, in which the iron-shod
stamps are inserted. The stamps are not far distant from each other, and
fit closely in the cross-beams. Each stamp has a tappet at the back, which
requires to be daubed with grease on the lower side that it can be raised
more easily. For each stamp there are on a cam-shaft, two cams, rounded on
into the mortar, it may with its iron head pound and crush the rock which
has been thrown under it. To the cam-shaft is fixed a water-wheel whose
buckets are turned by water-power. Instead of doors, the mouth of the
mortar has a board, which is fitted into notches cut out of the front of the block. This board can be raised, in order that when the mouth is open, the workmen
A—MORTAR. B—UPRIGHT POSTS. C—CROSS-BEAMS. D—STAMPS. E—THEIR HEADS.
F—AXLE (CAM-SHAFT). G—TOOTH OF THE STAMP (TAPPET). H—TEETH OF AXLE (CAMS).
can remove with a shovel the fine sand, and likewise the coarse sand and
broken rock, into which the rocks have been crushed; this board can be
lowered, so that the mouth thus being closed, the fresh rock thrown in may
be crushed with the iron-shod stamps. If an oak block is not available,
two timbers are placed on the ground and joined together with iron clamps,
each of the timbers being six feet long, a foot wide, and a foot and a half thick. Such depth as should be allowed to the mortar, is obtained by cutting out the
first beam to a width of three-quarters of a foot and to a length of two and a
third and one twenty-fourth of a foot. In the bottom of the part thus dug
out, there should be laid a very hard rock, a foot thick and three-quarters of a
foot wide; about it, if any space remains, earth or sand should be filled in
and pounded. On the front, this bed rock is covered with a plank; this
rock when it has been broken, should be taken away and replaced by
another. A smaller mortar having room for only three stamps may also be
made in the same manner.
The stamp-stems are made of small square timbers nine feet long and
half a foot wide each way. The iron head of each is made in the following
same length. The lower part is a palm square in the middle for two palms,
then below this, for a length of two digits it gradually spreads until it
becomes five digits square; above the middle part, for a length of two
digits, it again gradually swells out until it becomes a palm and a half square. Higher up, where the head of the shoe is enclosed in the stem, it is bored
through and similarly the stem itself is pierced, and through the opening of
each, there passes a broad iron wedge, which prevents the head falling off the
stem. To prevent the stamp head from becoming broken by the constant
striking of fragments of ore or rocks, there is placed around it a quadrangular
iron band a digit thick, seven digits wide, and six digits deep. Those who
use three stamps, as is common, make them much larger, and they are
made square and three palms broad each way; then the iron shoe
of each has a total length of two feet and a palm; at the lower end, it is
hexagonal, and at that point it is seven digits wide and thick. The lower
part of it which projects beyond the stem is one foot and two palms long;
the upper part, which is enclosed in the stem, is three palms long; the
A—STAMP. B—STEM CUT OUT IN LOWER PART. C—SHOE. D—THE OTHER SHOE,
BARBED AND GROOVED. E—QUADRANGULAR IRON BAND. F—WEDGE. G—TAPPET.
H—ANGULAR CAM-SHAFT. I—CAMS. K—PAIR OF COMPASSES.
narrower and thinner, so that at the top it is three digits and a half wide and
two thick. It is bored through at the place where the angles have been
somewhat cut away; the hole is three digits long and one wide, and is one
digit's distance from the top. There are some who make that part of the
head which is enclosed in the stem, barbed and grooved, in order that when
the hooks have been fixed into the stem and wedges fitted to the grooves,
it may remain tightly fixed, especially when it is also held with two quad
rangular iron bands. Some divide the cam-shaft with a compass into six
sides, others into nine; it is better for it to be divided into twelve sides, in
order that successively one side may contain a cam and the next be without one.
The water-wheel is entirely enclosed under a quadrangular box, in case
either the deep snows or ice in winter, or storms, may impede its running and
its turning around. The joints in the planks are stopped all around with
moss. The cover, however, has one opening, through which there passes
a race bringing down water which, dropping on the buckets of the wheel,
turns it round, and flows out again in the lower race under the box. The
spokes of the water-wheel are not infrequently mortised into the middle of
A—BOX. ALTHOUGH THE UPPER PART IS NOT OPEN, IT IS SHOWN OPEN HERE, THAT THE
WHEEL MAY BE SEEN. B—WHEEL. C—CAM-SHAFT. D—STAMPS.
either both crush dry or wet ore, or else the one set crushes dry ore and the
other set wet ore, just as circumstances require the one or the other;
further, when the one set is raised and the iron clavises in them are fixed
into openings in the first cross-beam, the other set alone crushes the ore.
Broken rock or stones, or the coarse or fine sand, are removed from
the mortar of this machine and heaped up, as is also done with the same
materials when raked out of the dump near the mine. They are thrown
by a workman into a box, which is open on the top and the front, and is three
feet long and nearly a foot and a half wide. Its sides are sloping and made
of planks, but its bottom is made of iron wire netting, and fastened with
wire to two iron rods, which are fixed to the two side planks. This bottom
has openings, through which broken rock of the size of a hazel nut cannot
pass; the pieces which are too large to pass through are removed by the
workman, who again places them under stamps, while those which have
passed through, together with the coarse and fine sand, he collects in a large
vessel and keeps for the washing. When he is performing his laborious
A—BOX LAID FLAT ON THE GROUND. B—ITS BOTTOM WHICH IS MADE OF IRON WIRE.
C—BOX INVERTED. D—IRON RODS. E—BOX SUSPENDED FROM A BEAM, THE INSIDE
BEING VISIBLE. F—BOX SUSPENDED FROM A BEAM, THE OUTSIDE BEING VISIBLE.This box may rightly
be called a quadrangular sieve, as may also that kind which follows.
Some employ a sieve shaped like a wooden bucket, bound with two iron
hoops; its bottom, like that of the box, is made of iron wire netting. They place this on two small cross-planks fixed upon a post set in the ground.
Some do not fix the post in the ground, but stand it on the ground until
there arises a heap of the material which has passed through the sieve, and
in this the post is fixed. With an iron shovel the workman throws into this
sieve broken rock, small stones, coarse and fine sand raked out of the dump;
holding the handles of the sieve in his hands, he agitates it up and down in
A—SIEVE. B—SMALL PLANKS. C—POST. D—BOTTOM OF SIEVE. E—OPEN BOX.
F—SMALL CROSS-BEAM. G—UPRIGHT POSTS.
order that by this movement the dust, fine and coarse sand, small stones, and
fine broken rock may fall through the bottom. Others do not use a sieve, but
an open box, whose bottom is likewise covered with wire netting; this they
fix on a small cross-beam fastened to two upright beams and tilt it backward
and forward.
Some use a sieve made of copper, having square copper handles on both
sides, and through these handles runs a pole, of which one end projects three
quarters of a foot beyond one handle; the workman then places that end in
a rope which is suspended from a beam, and rapidly shakes the pole alter-By this movement the small particles
fall through the bottom of the sieve. In order that the end of the pole
may be easily placed in the rope, a stick, two palms long, holds open the
lower part of the rope as it hangs double, each end of the rope being tied to
the beam; part of the rope, however, hangs beyond the stick to a length of
half a foot. A large box is also used for this purpose, of which the bottom
is either made of a plank full of holes or of iron netting, as are the other
boxes. An iron bale is fastened from the middle of the planks which form
its sides; to this bale is fastened a rope which is suspended from a wooden
beam, in order that the box may be moved or tilted in any direction.
A—BOX. B—BALE. C—ROPE. D—BEAM. E—HANDLES. F—FIVE-TOOTHED RAKE.
G—SIEVE. H—ITS HANDLES. I—POLE. K—ROPE. L—TIMBER.
There are two handles on each end, not unlike the handles of a wheel
barrow; these are held by two workmen, who shake the box to and fro. This box is the one principally used by the Germans who dwell in the
Carpathian mountains. The smaller particles are separated from the larger
ones by means of three boxes and two sieves, in order that those which
pass through each, being of equal size, may be washed together; for the
bottoms of both the boxes and sieves have openings which do not let
through broken rock of the size of a hazel nut. As for the dry remnants
under the stamps. The larger pieces of broken rock are not separated from
the smaller by this method until the men and boys, with five-toothed rakes,
have separated them from the rock fragments, the little stones, the
coarse and the fine sand and earth, which have been thrown on to the dumps.
At Neusohl, in the Carpathians, there are mines where the veins of copper
lie in the ridges and peaks of the mountains, and in order to save expense
being incurred by a long and difficult transport, along a rough and sometimes
very precipitous road, one workman sorts over the dumps which have been
thrown out from the mines, and another carries in a wheelbarrow the earth,
fine and coarse sand, little stones, broken rock, and even the poorer ore, and
overturns the barrow into a long open chute fixed to a steep rock. This
chute is held apart by small cleats, and the material slides down a distance of
about one hundred and fifty feet into a short box, whose bottom is made of a
thick copper plate, full of holes. This box has two handles by which it is
shaken to and fro, and at the top there are two bales made of hazel sticks,
in which is fixed the iron hook of a rope hung from the branch of a tree or
from a wooden beam which projects from an upright post. From time to
time a sifter pulls this box and thrusts it violently against the tree or post,
by which means the small particles passing through its holes descend down
another chute into another short box, in whose bottom there are smaller
holes. A second sifter, in like manner, thrusts this box violently against a
tree or post, and a second time the smaller particles are received into a third
chute, and slide down into a third box, whose bottom has still smaller holes. A third sifter, in like manner, thrusts this box violently against a tree or post,
and for the third time the tiny particles fall through the holes upon a table. While the workman is bringing in the barrow, another load which has been
sorted from the dump, each sifter withdraws the hooks from his bale
and carries away his own box and overturns it, heaping up the broken rock
or sand which remains in the bottom of it. As for the tiny particles which
have slid down upon the table, the first washer—for there are as many
washers as sifters—sweeps them off and in a tub nearly full of water, washes
them through a sieve whose holes are smaller than the holes of the third box. When this tub has been filled with the material which has passed through
the sieve, he draws out the plug to let the water run away; then he removes
with a shovel that which has settled in the tub and throws it upon the table
of a second washer, who washes it in a sieve with smaller holes. The sedi
ment which has this time settled in his tub, he takes out and throws on the
table of a third washer, who washes it in a sieve with the smallest holes. The copper concentrates which have settled in the last tub are taken out and
smelted; the sediment which each washer has removed with a limp is
washed on a canvas strake. The sifters at Altenberg, in the tin mines of
the mountains bordering on Bohemia, use such boxes as I have described,
hung from wooden beams. These, however, are a little larger and open in
the front, through which opening the broken rock which has not gone through
the sieve can be shaken out immediately by thrusting the sieve against its post.
A—WORKMAN CARRYING BROKEN ROCK IN A BARROW. B—FIRST CHUTE. C—FIRST BOX.
D—ITS HANDLES. E—ITS BALES. F—ROPE. G—BEAM. H—POST. I—SECOND
CHUTE. K—SECOND BOX. L—THIRD CHUTE. M—THIRD BOX. N—FIRST TABLE.
O—FIRST SIEVE. P—FIRST TUB. Q—SECOND TABLE. R—SECOND SIEVE. S—SECOND
TUB. T—THIRD TABLE. V—THIRD SIEVE. X—THIRD TUB. Y—PLUGS.
If the ore is rich in metal, the earth, the fine and coarse sand, and the
pieces of rock which have been broken from the hanging-wall, are dug out of
the dump with a spade or rake and, with a shovel, are thrown into a large sieve
or basket, and washed in a tub nearly full of water. The sieve is generally
a cubit broad and half a foot deep; its bottom has holes of such size that the
larger pieces of broken rock cannot pass through them, for this material rests
upon the straight and cross iron wires, which at their points of contact are
bound by small iron clips. The sieve is held together by an iron band and by
two cross-rods likewise of iron; the rest of the sieve is made of staves in the
shape of a little tub, and is bound with two iron hoops; some, however,
bind it with hoops of hazel or oak, but in that case they use three of them. On each side it has handles, which are held in the hands by whoever washes
the metalliferous material. Into this sieve a boy throws the material to be
washed, and a woman shakes it up and down, turning it alternately to the
A—SIEVE. B—ITS HANDLES. C—TUB. D—BOTTOM OF SIEVE MADE OF IRON WIRES.
E—HOOP. F—RODS. G—HOOPS. H—WOMAN SHAKING THE SIEVE. I—BOY SUPPLYING
IT WITH MATERIAL WHICH REQUIRES WASHING. K—MAN WITH SHOVEL REMOVING FROM
THE TUB THE MATERIAL WHICH HAS PASSED THROUGH THE SIEVE.
earth, sand, and broken rock. The larger pieces remain in the sieve, and
these are taken out, placed in a heap and put under the stamps. The
mud, together with fine sand, coarse sand, and broken rock, which remain
after the water has been drawn out of the tub, is removed by an iron shovel
and washed in the sluice, about which I will speak a little later.
The Bohemians use a basket a foot and a half broad and half a foot deep,
bound together by osiers. It has two handles by which it is grasped, when
they move it about and shake it in the tub or in a small pool nearly full
of water. All that passes through it into the tub or pool they take out and
wash in a bowl, which is higher in the back part and lower and flat in the
front; it is grasped by the two handles and shaken in the water, the lighter
particles flowing away, and the heavier and mineral portion sinking to the
bottom.
A—BASKET. B—ITS HANDLES. C—DISH. D—ITS BACK PART. E—ITS FRONT PART.
F—HANDLES OF SAME.
Gold ore, after being broken with hammers or crushed by the stamps,
and even tin ore, is further milled to powder. The upper millstone, which
An axle is rounded
to compass measure, or is made angular, and its iron pinions turn in iron
sockets which are held in beams. The axle is turned by a water-wheel, the
buckets of which are fixed to the rim and are struck by the force of a stream.
A—AXLE. B—WATER-WHEEL. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES.
E—IRON AXLE. F—MILLSTONE. G—HOPPER. H—ROUND WOODEN PLATE.
I—TROUGH.
Into the axle is mortised a toothed drum, whose teeth are fixed in the side
of the rim. These teeth turn a second drum of rundles, which are made of
very hard material. This drum surrounds an iron axle which has a pinion
at the bottom and revolves in an iron cup in a timber. At the top of the
iron axle is an iron tongue, dove-tailed into the millstone, and so when the
teeth of the one drum turn the rundles of the other, the millstone is made to
turn round. An overhanging machine supplies it with ore through a hopper,
and the ore, being ground to powder, is discharged from a round wooden plate
into a trough and flowing away through it accumulates on the floor;
from there the ore is carried away and reserved for washing. Since this
lowered, the timber in whose socket the iron of the pinion axle revolves, rests
upon two beams, which can be raised and lowered.
There are three mills in use in milling gold ores, especially for quartz
which is not lacking in metal. They are not all turned by water-power,
but some by the strength of men, and two of them even by the power
of beasts of burden. The first revolving one differs from the next only
in its driving wheel, which is closed in and turned by men treading it, or by
horses, which are placed inside, or by asses, or even by strong goats; the
eyes of these beasts are covered by linen bands. The second mill, both
when pushed and turned round, differs from the two above by having an
upright axle in the place of the horizontal one; this axle has at its lower end
a disc, which two workmen turn by treading back its cleats with their feet,
though frequently one man sustains all the labour; or sometimes there
projects from the axle a pole which is turned by a horse or an ass, for which
reason it is called an The toothed drum which is at the upper end
of the axle turns the drum which is made of rundles, and together with it the
millstone.
The third mill is turned round and round, and not pushed by hand; but
between this and the others there is a great distinction, for the lower
millstone is so shaped at the top that it can hold within it the upper mill
stone, which revolves around an iron axle; this axle is fastened in the
centre of the lower stone and passes through the upper stone. A workman,
by grasping in his hand an upright iron bar placed in the upper millstone,
moves it round. The middle of the upper millstone is bored through, and
the ore, being thrown into this opening, falls down upon the lower millstone
and is there ground to powder, which gradually runs out through its opening;
it is washed by various methods before it is mixed with quicksilver,
which I will explain presently.
Some people build a machine which at one and the same time can crush,
grind, cleanse, and wash the gold ore, and mix the gold with quicksilver. This machine has one water-wheel, which is turned by a stream striking its
buckets; the main axle on one side of the water-wheel has long cams, which
raise the stamps that crush the dry ore. Then the crushed ore is thrown
into the hopper of the upper millstone, and gradually falling through the
opening, is ground to powder. The lower millstone is square, but has a round
depression in which the round, upper millstone turns, and it has an outlet
from which the powder falls into the first tub. A vertical iron axle is dove
tailed into a cross-piece, which is in turn fixed into the upper millstone;
the upper pinion of this axle is held in a bearing fixed in a beam; the drum
of the vertical axle is made of rundles, and is turned by the toothed drum
on the main axle, and thus turns the millstone. The powder falls continually
into the first tub, together with water, and from there runs into a second tub
which is set lower down, and out of the second into a third, which is the
lowest; from the third, it generally flows into a small trough hewn out of a
A—FIRST MILL. B—WHEEL TURNED BY GOATS. C—SECOND MILL. D—DISC OF
UPRIGHT AXLE. E—ITS TOOTHED DRUM. F—THIRD MILL. G—SHAPE OF LOWER
MILLSTONE. H—SMALL UPRIGHT AXLE OF THE SAME. I—ITS OPENING. K—LEVER
OF THE UPPER MILLSTONE. L—ITS OPENING.Quicksilver
plank, and through a hole in the middle of each plank there passes a small
upright axle, which is enlarged above the plank to prevent it from dropping
into the tub lower than it should. At the lower end of the axle three sets
of paddles intersect, each made from two little boards fixed to the axle
opposite each other. The upper end of this axle has a pinion held by a
bearing set in a beam, and around each of these axles is a small drum made
of rundles, each of which is turned by a small toothed drum on a horizontal
other end is held in a hollow covered with thick iron plates in a beam. Thus
the paddles, of which there are three sets in each tub, turn round, and
agitating the powder, thoroughly mix it with water and separate the minute
particles of gold from it, and these are attracted by the quicksilver and
purified. The water carries away the waste.
The quicksilver is poured
into a bag made of leather or cloth woven from cotton, and when this bag is
squeezed, as I have described elsewhere, the quicksilver drips through it into
a jar placed underneath. The pure gold
Some people
substitute three broad sluices for the tubs, each of which has an angular axle
on which are set six narrow spokes, and to them are fixed the same number of
broad paddles; the water that is poured in strikes these paddles and turns
them round, and they agitate the powder which is mixed with the water and
separate the metal from it. If the powder which is being treated contains
gold particles, the first method of washing is far superior, because the quick
silver in the tubs immediately attracts the gold; if it is powder in which
are the small black stones from which tin is smelted, this latter method is
not to be despised. It is very advantageous to place interlaced fir boughs
in the sluices in which such tin-stuff is washed, after it has run through the
launders from the mills, because the fine tin-stone is either held back by the
twigs, or if the current carries them along they fall away from the water
and settle down.
A—WATER-WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—STAMP. D—HOPPER IN THE UPPER MILLSTONE.
E—OPENING PASSING THROUGH THE CENTRE. F—LOWER MILLSTONE. G—ITS
ROUND DEPRESSION. H—ITS OUTLET. I—IRON AXLE. K—ITS CROSSPIECE. L—BEAM.
M—DRUM OF RUNDLES ON THE IRON AXLE. N—TOOTHED DRUM OF MAIN AXLE. O—TUBS.
P—THE SMALL PLANKS. Q—SMALL UPRIGHT AXLES. R—ENLARGED PART OF ONE.
Seven methods of washing are in common use for the ores of many
metals; for they are washed either in a simple buddle, or in a divided buddle,
or in an ordinary strake, or in a large tank, or in a short strake, or in a canvas
strake, or in a jigging sieve. Other methods of washing are either peculiar
to some particular metal, or are combined with the method of crushing wet
ore by stamps.
A simple buddle is made in the following way.
In the first place, the head
is higher than the rest of the buddle, and is three feet long and a foot and a half
broad; this head is made of planks laid upon a timber and fastened, and
on both sides, side-boards are set up so as to hold the water, which flows in
through a pipe or trough, so that it shall fall straight down. The middle of
the head is somewhat depressed in order that the broken rock and the larger
metallic particles may settle into it. The buddle is sunk into the earth to a
depth of three-quarters of a foot below the head, and is twelve feet long and
a foot and a half wide and deep; the bottom and each side are lined with
planks to prevent the earth, when it is softened by the water, from falling
in or from absorbing the metallic particles. The lower end of the buddle is
obstructed by a board, which is not as high as the sides. To this straight
buddle there is joined a second transverse buddle, six feet long and a foot
and a half wide and deep, similarly lined with planks; at the lower
that the water can flow away: this water falls into a launder and is carried
outside the building. In this simple buddle is washed the metallic material
which has passed on to the floor of the works through the five large sieves. When this has been gathered into a heap, the washer throws it into the head
of the buddle, and water is poured upon it through the pipe or small trough,
and the portion which sinks and settles in the middle of the head compart
ment he stirs with a wooden scrubber,—this is what we will henceforth call
the implement made of a stick to which is fixed a piece of wood a foot long
and a palm broad. The water is made turbid by this stirring, and carries
the mud and sand and small particles of metal into the buddle below. Together with the broken rock, the larger metallic particles remain in the
head compartment, and when these have been removed, boys throw them upon
the platform of a washing tank or the short strake, and separate them from
the broken rock. When the buddle is full of mud and sand, the washer closes
the pipe through which the water flows into the head; very soon the
water which remains in the buddle flows away, and when this has taken
A—HEAD OF BUDDLE. B—PIPE. C—BUDDLE. D—BOARD. E—TRANSVERSE BUDDLE.
F—SHOVEL. G—SCRUBBER.
minute particles of metal, and washes them on a canvas strake. Sometimes
before the buddles have been filled full, the boys throw the material into a
bowl and carry it to the strakes and wash it.
Pulverized ore is washed in the head of this kind of a buddle; but usually
when tin-stone is washed in it, interlacing fir boughs are put into the buddle, in
the same manner as in the sluice when wet ore is crushed with stamps. The
larger tin-stone particles, which sink in the upper part of the buddle,
are washed separately in a strake; those particles which are of medium
size, and settle in the middle part, are washed separately in the same way;
and the mud mixed with minute particles of tin-stone, which has settled in
the lowest part of the buddle below the fir boughs, is washed separately on
the canvas strakes.
The divided buddle differs from the last one by having several cross
boards, which, being placed inside it, divide it off like steps; if the buddle
is twelve feet long, four of them are placed within; if nine feet long, three. The nearer each one is to the head, the greater is its height; the further from
the head, the lower it is; and so when the highest is a foot and a palm high,
A—PIPE. B—CROSS LAUNDER. C—SMALL TROUGHS. D—HEAD OF THE BUDDLE.
E—WOODEN SCRUBBER. F—DIVIDING BOARDS. G—SHORT STRAKE.
digits, and the lowest a foot and one digit. In this buddle is generally washed
that metalliferous material which has been sifted through the large sieve
into the tub containing water. This material is continuously thrown with
an iron shovel into the head of the buddle, and the water which has been
let in is stirred up by a wooden scrubber, until the buddle is full, then the
cross-boards are taken out by the washer, and the water is drained off; next
the metalliferous material which has settled in the compartments is again
washed, either on a short strake or on the canvas strakes or in the jigging
sieves. Since a short strake is often united with the upper part of this buddle,
a pipe in the first place carries the water into a cross launder, from which it
flows down through one little launder into the buddle, and through another
into the short strake.
An ordinary strake, so far as the planks are concerned, is not unlike the
last two. The head of this, as of the others, is first made of earth stamped
down, then covered with planks; and where it is necessary, earth is
thrown in and beaten down a second time, so that no crevice may remain
through which water carrying the particles of metal can escape. The water
ought to fall straight down into the strake, which has a length of eight feet
A—HEAD B—STRAKE. C—TROWEL. D—SCRUBBER. E—CANVAS F—ROD BY
WHICH THE CANVAS IS MADE SMOOTH.
which then extends to a settling pit outside the building. A boy with
a shovel or a ladle takes the impure concentrates or impure tin-stone from a
heap, and throws them into the head of the strake or spreads them over it. A washer with a wooden scrubber then agitates them in the strake, whereby
the mud mixed with water flows away into the transverse launder, and the
concentrates or the tin-stone settle on the strake. Since sometimes the
concentrates or fine tin-stone flow down together with the mud into the
transverse launder, a second washer closes it, after a distance of about six feet,
with a cross-board and frequently stirs the mud with a shovel, in order that
when mixed with water it may flow out into the settling-pit; and there
remains in the launder only the concentrates or tin-stone. The tin-stuff
of Schlackenwald and Erbisdroff is washed in this kind of a strake once
or twice; those of Altenberg three or four times; those of Geyer often
seven times; for in the ore at Schlackenwald and Erbisdorff the tin-stone
particles are of a fair size, and are crushed with stamps; at Altenberg they
are of much smaller size, and in the broken ore at Geyer only a few particles
of tin-stone can be seen occasionally.
This method of washing was first devised by the miners who treated
tin ore, whence it passed on from the works of the tin workers to those of the
silver workers and others; this system is even more reliable than
washing in jigging-sieves. Near this ordinary strake there is generally a
canvas strake.
In modern times two ordinary strakes, similarly made, are generally
joined together; the head of one is three feet distant from that of the other,
while the bodies are four feet distant from each other, and there is only one
cross launder under the two strakes. One boy shovels, from the heap into the
head of each, the concentrates or tin-stone mixed with mud. There are
two washers, one of whom sits at the right side of one strake, and the
other at the left of the other strake, and each pursues his task, using the
following sort of implement. Under each strake is a sill, from a socket in
which a round pole rises, and is held by half an iron ring in a beam of the
building, so that it may revolve; this pole is nine feet long and a palm
thick. Penetrating the pole is a small round piece of wood, three palms
long and as many digits thick, to which is affixed a small board two feet
long and five digits wide, in an opening of which one end of a small axle
revolves, and to this axle is fixed the handle of a little scrubber. The other
end of this axle turns in an opening of a second board, which is likewise fixed
to a small round piece of wood; this round piece, like the first one, is three
palms long and as many digits thick, and is used by the washer as a handle. The little scrubber is made of a stick three feet long, to the end of which is
fixed a small tablet of wood a foot long, six digits broad, and a digit and a
half thick. The washer constantly moves the handle of this implement
with one hand; in this way the little scrubber stirs the concentrates or
the fine tin-stone mixed with mud in the head of the strake, and the mud, on
being stirred, flows on to the strake. In the other hand he holds a second
A—UPPER CROSS LAUNDER. B—SMALL LAUNDERS. C—HEADS OF STRAKES.
D—STRAKES. E—LOWER TRANSVERSE LAUNDER. F—SETTLING PIT. G—SOCKET
IN THE SILL. H—HALVED IRON RINGS FIXED TO BEAM. I—POLE. K—ITS LITTLE
SCRUBRER. L—SECOND SMALL SCRUBBER.
lessly stirs the concentrates or tin-stone which have settled in the upper
part of the strake; in this way the mud and water flow down into the
transverse launder, and from it into the settling-pit which is outside the
building.
Before the short strake and the jigging-sieve had been invented, metallifer
ous ores, especially tin, were crushed dry with stamps and washed in a large
trough hollowed out of one or two tree trunks; and at the head of this trough
was a platform, on which the ore was thrown after being completely crushed. The washer pulled it down into the trough with a wooden scrubber which
had a long handle, and when the water had been let into the trough, he stirred
the ore with the same scrubber.
A—TROUGH. B—PLATFORM. C—WOODEN SCRUBBER.
The short strake is narrow in the upper part where the water flows down
into it through the little launder; in fact it is only two feet wide; at the lower
end it is wider, being three feet and as many palms. At the sides, which are
six feet long, are fixed boards two palms high. In other respects the head
resembles the head of the simple buddle, except that it is not depressed in the
middle. Beneath is a cross launder closed by a low board.
In this short
strake not only is ore agitated and washed with a wooden scrubber, but boys
in tubs. The short strake is now rarely employed by miners, owing to the
carelessness of the boys, which has been frequently detected; for this
reason, the jigging-sieve has taken its place. The mud which settles in the
launder, if the ore is rich, is taken up and washed in a jigging-sieve or on a
canvas strake.
A—SHORT STRAKE. B—SMALL LAUNDER. C—TRANSVERSE LAUNDER. D—WOODEN
SCRUBBER.
A canvas strake is made in the following way.
Two beams, eighteen feet
long and half a foot broad and three palms thick, are placed on a slope; one
half of each of these beams is partially cut away lengthwise, to allow the ends
of planks to be fastened in them, for the bottom is covered by planks three
feet long, set crosswise and laid close together. One half of each supporting
beam is left intact and rises a palm above the planks, in order that the water
that is running down may not escape at the sides, but shall flow straight
down. The head of the strake is higher than the rest of the body, and slopes
so as to enable the water to flow away. The whole strake is covered by six
stretched pieces of canvas, smoothed with a stick. The first of them occupies
the lowest division, and the second is so laid as to slightly overlap it; on
A—BEAMS. B—CANVAS. C—HEAD OF STRAKE. D—SMALL LAUNDER. E—SETTLING
PIT OR TANK. F—WOODEN SCRUBBER. G—TUBS.
the second division, the third is similarly laid, and so on, one on the other. If they are laid in the opposite way, the water flowing down carries the
concentrates or particles of tin-stone under the canvas, and a useless task
is attempted. Boys or men throw the concentrates or tin-stuff mixed with
mud into the head of the strake, after the canvas has been thus stretched,
and having opened the small launder they let the water flow in; then
they stir the concentrates or tin-stone with a wooden scrubber till the water
carries them all on to the canvas; next they gently sweep the linen with
the wooden scrubber until the mud flows into the settling-pit or into the
transverse launder. As soon as there is little or no mud on the canvas, but
only concentrates or tin-stone, they carry the canvas away and wash it in a
tub placed close by. The tin-stone settles in the tub, and the men return
immediately to the same task. Finally, they pour the water out of the tub,
and collect the concentrates or tin-stone. However, if either concentrates
or tin-stone have washed down from the canvas and settled in the settling
pit or in the transverse launder, they wash the mud again.
Some neither remove the canvas nor wash it in the tubs, but place over
with nails. They agitate the metalliferous material with wooden scrubbers
and wash it in a similar way. As soon as little or no mud remains on the
canvas, but only concentrates or fine tin-stone, they lift one beam so that
the whole strake rests on the other, and dash it with water, which has been
drawn with buckets out of the small tank, and in this way all the sediment
which clings to the canvas falls into the trough placed underneath. This
trough is hewn out of a tree and placed in a ditch dug in the ground; the
interior of the trough is a foot wide at the top, but narrower in the bottom,
because it is rounded out. In the middle of this trough they put a cross
board, in order that the fairly large particles of concentrates or fairly large
sized tin-stone may remain in the forepart into which they have fallen, and
the fine concentrates or fine tin-stone in the lower part, for the water flows
from one into the other, and at last flows down through an opening into the
pit. As for the fairly large-sized concentrates or tin-stone which have been
removed from the trough, they are washed again on the ordinary strake.
A—CANVAS STRAKE. B—MAN DASHING WATER ON THE CANVAS. C—BUCKET.
D—BUCKET OF ANOTHER KIND. E—MAN REMOVING CONCENTRATES OR TIN-STONE
FROM THE TROUGH.
strake. By this method, the canvas lasts longer because it remains fixed,
and nearly double the work is done by one washer as quickly as can be done
by two washers by the other method.
The jigging sieve has recently come into use by miners.
The
metalliferous material is thrown into it and sifted in a tub nearly full of water. The sieve is shaken up and down, and by this movement all the material
below the size of a pea passes through into the tub, and the rest remains on the
bottom of the sieve. This residue is of two kinds, the metallic particles,
which occupy the lower place, and the particles of rock and earth, which
take the higher place, because the heavy substance always settles, and the
light is borne upward by the force of the water. This light material is taken
away with a limp, which is a thin tablet of wood almost semicircular in
shape, three-quarters of a foot long, and half a foot wide. Before the
lighter portion is taken away the contents of the sieve are generally divided
crosswise with a limp, to enable the water to penetrate into it more quickly. Afterward fresh material is again thrown into the sieve and shaken up and
down, and when a great quantity of metallic particles have settled in the sieve,
they are taken out and put into a tray close by. But since there fall into
the tub with the mud, not only particles of gold or silver, but also of sand,
pyrites,
water cannot separate these from the metallic particles because they are all
heavy, this muddy mixture is washed a second time, and the part which is
useless is thrown away. To prevent the sieve passing this sand again too
quickly, the washer lays small stones or gravel in the bottom of the sieve. However, if the sieve is not shaken straight up and down, but is tilted to one
side, the small stones or broken ore move from one part to another, and the
metallic material again falls into the tub, and the operation is frustrated. The miners of our country have made an even finer sieve, which does not
fail even with unskilled washers; in washing with this sieve they have no
need for the bottom to be strewn with small stones. By this method the mud
settles in the tub with the very fine metallic particles, and the larger sizes of
metal remain in the sieve and are covered with the valueless sand, and this
is taken away with a limp. The concentrates which have been collected
are smelted together with other things. The mud mixed with the very fine
metallic particles is washed for a third time and in the finest sieve, whose
bottom is woven of hair. If the ore is rich in metal, all the material which
has been removed by the limp is washed on the canvas strakes, or if the ore
is poor it is thrown away.
I have explained the methods of washing which are used in common for
the ores of many metals. I now come to another method of crushing ore,
for I ought to speak of this before describing those methods of washing which
are peculiar to ores of particular metals.
In the year 1512, George, the illustrious Duke of Saxony
A—FINE SIEVES. B—LIMP. C—FINER SIEVE. D—FINEST SIEVE
and wise Sigismund Maltitz, father of John, Bishop of Meissen. Reject
ing the dry stamps, the large sieve, and the stone mills of Dippolds
walde and Altenberg, in which places are dug the small black stones
from which tin is smelted, he invented a machine which could crush the ore
wet under iron-shod stamps. That is called “wet ore” which is softened by
water which flows into the mortar box, and they are sometimes called “wet
stamps” because they are drenched by the same water; and on the other hand, the
other kinds are called “dry stamps” or “dry ore,” because no water is used
to soften the ore when the stamps are crushing. But to return to our subject.
This machine is not dissimilar to the one which crushes the ore with dry
iron-shod stamps, but the heads of the wet stamps are larger by half than the
heads of the others. The mortar-box, which is made of oak or beech timber, is
set up in the space between the upright posts; it does not open in front, but
at one end, and it is three feet long, three-quarters of a foot wide, and one foot
and six digits deep. If it has no bottom, it is set up in the same way over a
slab of hard, smooth rock placed in the ground, which has been dug down a
little. The joints are stopped up all round with moss or cloth rags.
If
the mortar has a bottom, then an iron sole-plate, three feet long, three
quarters of a foot wide, and a palm thick, is placed in it. In the opening
in the end of the mortar there is fixed an iron plate full of holes, in such a
way that there is a space of two digits between it and the shoe of the nearest
stamp, and the same distance between this screen and the upright post, in
an opening through which runs a small but fairly long launder. The crushed
particles of silver ore flow through this launder with the water into a settling
pit, while the material which settles in the launder is removed with an iron
shovel to the nearest planked floor; that material which has settled in the
pit is removed with an iron shovel on to another floor. Most people make
two launders, in order that while the workman empties one of them of the
accumulation which has settled in it, a fresh deposit may be settling in the
other. The water flows in through a small launder at the other end of the
mortar that is near the water-wheel which turns the machine. The workman
throws the ore to be crushed into the mortar in such a way that the pieces,
when they are thrown in among the stamps, do not impede the work. By
this method a silver or gold ore is crushed very fine by the stamps.
When tin ore is crushed by this kind of iron-shod stamps, as soon as
crushing begins, the launder which extends from the screen discharges the
water carrying the fine tin-stone and fine sand into a transverse trough,
from which the water flows down through the spouts, which pierce the side of
the trough, into the one or other of the large buddles set underneath. The
reason why there are two is that, while the washer empties the one which is
filled with fine tin-stone and sand, the material may flow into the other. Each buddle is twelve feet long, one cubit deep, and a foot and a half broad.
The tin-stone which settles in the upper part of the buddles is called the
large size; these are frequently stirred with a shovel, in order that the
medium sized particles of tin-stone, and the mud mixed with the very fine
A—MORTAR. B—OPEN END OF MORTAR. C—SLAB OF ROCK. D—IRON SOLE PLATES.
E—SCREEN. F—LAUNDER. G—WOODEN SHOVEL. H—SETTLING PIT. I—IRON
SHOVEL. K—HEAP OF MATERIAL WHICH HAS SETTLED. L—ORE WHICH REQUIRES
CRUSHING. M—SMALL LAUNDER.The particles of medium size generally
settle in the middle part of the buddle, where they are arrested by interwoven
fir twigs. The mud which flows down with the water settles between the
twigs and the board which closes the lower end of the buddle. The tin-stone
of large size is removed separately from the buddle with a shovel; those
of medium size are also removed separately, and likewise the mud is removed
separately, for they are separately washed on the canvas strakes and on
the ordinary strake, and separately roasted and smelted. The tin-stone
which has settled in the middle part of the buddle, is also always washed
separately on the canvas strakes; but if the particles are nearly equal in size
to those which have settled in the upper part of the buddle, they are washed
with them in the ordinary strake and are roasted and smelted with them. However, the mud is never washed with the others, either on the canvas
strakes or on the ordinary strake, but separately, and the fine tin-stone which
is obtained from it is roasted and smelted separately. The two large buddles
discharge into a cross trough, and it again empties through a launder into
a settling-pit which is outside the building.
A—LAUNDER REACHING TO THE SCREEN. B—TRANSVERSE TROUGH. C—SPOUTS.
D—LARGE BUDDLES. E—SHOVEL. F—INTERWOVEN TWIGS. G—BOARDS CLOSING
THE BUDDLES. H—CROSS TROUGH.
This method of washing has lately undergone a considerable change; for
the launder which carries the water, mixed with the crushed tin-stone and
fine sand which flow from the openings of the screen, does not reach to a
transverse trough which is inside the same room, but runs straight through
a partition into a small settling-pit. A boy draws a three-toothed rake
through the material which has settled in the portion of the launder outside
the room, by which means the larger sized particles of tin-stone settle at the
bottom, and these the washer takes out with the wooden shovel and carries
into the room; this material is thrown into an ordinary strake and swept
with a wooden scrubber and washed. As for those tin-stone particles which
the water carries off from the strake, after they have been brought back on to
the strake, he washes them again until they are clean.
The remaining tin-stone, mixed with sand, flows into the small settling-pit
which is within the building, and this discharges into two large buddles. The
tin-stone of moderate size, mixed with those of fairly large size, settle in the
upper part, and the small size in the lower part; but both are impure, and
for this reason they are taken out separately and the former is washed twice,
A—FIRST LAUNDER. B—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE. C—SMALL SETTLING PIT. D—LARGE
BUDDLE. E—BUDDLE RESEMBLING THE SIMPLE BUDDLE. F—SMALL ROLLER. G—
BOARDS. H—THEIR HOLES. I—SHOVEL. K—BUILDING. L—STOVE. (THIS PICTURE
DOES NOT ENTIRELY AGREE WITH THE TEXT).
strake. Likewise the latter is washed twice, first on a canvas strake and
afterward on an ordinary strake. This buddle, which is like the simple
buddle, differs from it in the head, the whole of which in this case is sloping,
while in the case of the other it is depressed in the centre. In order that the
boy may be able to rest the shovel with which he cleanses the tin-stone,
this sluice has a small wooden roller which turns in holes in two thick
boards fixed to the sides of the buddle; if he did not do this, he would become
over-exhausted by his task, for he spends whole days standing over these
labours. The large buddle, the one like the simple buddle, the ordinary
strake, and the canvas strakes, are erected within a special building. In
this building there is a stove that gives out heat through the earthen tiles
or iron plates of which it is composed, in order that the washers can pursue
their labours even in winter, if the rivers are not completely frozen over.
On the canvas strakes are washed the very fine tin-stone mixed with
mud which has settled in the lower end of the large buddle, as well as
in the lower end of the simple buddle and of the ordinary strake. The canvas
is cleaned in a trough hewn out of one tree trunk and partitioned off with
two boards, so that three compartments are made. The first and second pieces
of canvas are washed in the first compartment, the third and fourth in the
second compartment, the fifth and sixth in the third compartment. Since
among the very fine tin-stone there are usually some grains of stone, rock,
or marble, the master cleanses them on the ordinary strake, lightly brushing
the top of the material with a broom, the twigs of which do not all run the
same way, but some straight and some crosswise. In this way the water
carries off these impurities from the strake into the settling-pit because they
are lighter, and leaves the tin-stone on the table because it is heavier.
Below all buddles or strakes, both inside and outside the building, there
are placed either settling-pits or cross-troughs into which they discharge,
in order that the water may carry on down into the stream but very few
of the most minute particles of tin-stone. The large settling-pit which is
outside the building is generally made of joined flooring, and is eight feet in
length, breadth and depth. When a large quantity of mud, mixed with
very fine tin-stone, has settled in it, first of all the water is let out by with
drawing a plug, then the mud which is taken out is washed outside the house
on the canvas strakes, and afterward the concentrates are washed on the
strake which is inside the building. By these methods the very finest tin
stone is made clean.
The mud mixed with the very fine tin-stone, which has neither settled
in the large settling-pit nor in the transverse launder which is outside the
room and below the canvas strakes, flows away and settles in the bed of the
stream or river. In order to recover even a portion of the fine tin-stone,
many miners erect weirs in the bed of the stream or river, very much like
those that are made above the mills, to deflect the current into the races
through which it flows to the water-wheels. At one side of each weir there
is an area dug out to a depth of five or six or seven feet, and if the nature of
A—LAUNDER FROM THE SCREEN OF THE MORTAR-BOX. B—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE.
C—SMALI. SETTLING-PIT. D—CANVAS. E—STRAKES. F—BROOMS.Thus, when the water of the river or stream in autumn and winter inundates
the land, the gates of the weir are closed, by which means the current carries
the mud mixed with fine tin-stone into the area. In spring and summer
this mud is washed on the canvas strakes or on the ordinary strake, and
even the finest black-tin is collected. Within a distance of four thousand
fathoms along the bed of the stream or river below the buildings in which
the tin-stuff is washed, the miners do not make such weirs, but put inclined
fences in the meadows, and in front of each fence they dig a ditch of the
same length, so that the mud mixed with the fine tin-stone, carried along by the
stream or river when in flood, may settle in the ditch and cling to the fence. When this mud is collected, it is likewise washed on canvas strakes and on
the ordinary strake, in order that the fine tin-stone may be separated from
it. Indeed we may see many such areas and fences collecting mud of this
kind in Meissen below Altenberg in the river Moglitz,—which is always of a
reddish colour when the rock containing the black tin is being crushed under
the stamps.
A—RIVER. B—WEIR. C—GATE. D—AREA. E—MEADOW. F—FENCE. G—DITCH.
But to return to the stamping machines.
Some usually set up four
machines of this kind in one place, that is to say, two above and the same
number below. By this plan it is necessary that the current which has been
diverted should fall down from a greater height upon the upper water
wheels, because these turn axles whose cams raise heavier stamps. The
stamp-stems of the upper machines should be nearly twice as long as the stems
of the lower ones, because all the mortar-boxes are placed on the same level. These stamps have their tappets near their upper ends, not as in the case of
the lower stamps, which are placed just above the bottom. The water flowing
down from the two upper water-wheels is caught in two broad races, from
which it falls on to the two lower water-wheels. Since all these machines
have the stamps very close together, the stems should be somewhat cut away,
to prevent the iron shoes from rubbing each other at the point where they are
set into the stems. Where so many machines cannot be constructed, by
reason of the narrowness of the valley, the mountain is excavated and
levelled in two places, one of which is higher than the other, and in this case
two machines are constructed and generally placed in one building. A
broad race receives in the same way the water which flows down from the
upper water-wheel, and similarly lets it fall on the lower water-wheel. The
mortar-boxes are not then placed on one level, but each on the level which
is appropriate to its own machine, and for this reason, two workmen are then
required to throw ore into the mortar-boxes. When no stream can be
diverted which will fall from a higher place upon the top of the water-wheel,
one is diverted which will turn the foot of the wheel; a great quantity of
water from the stream is collected in one pool capable of holding it, and
from this place, when the gates are raised, the water is discharged against
the wheel which turns in the race. The buckets of a water-wheel of this
kind are deeper and bent back, projecting upward; those of the former
are shallower and bent forward, inclining downward.
Further, in the Julian and Rhaetian Alps
Mountains, gold or even silver ore is now put under stamps, which are
sometimes placed more than twenty in a row, and crushed wet in a long mortar
box. The mortar has two plates full of holes through which the ore, after
being crushed, flows out with the water into the transverse launder placed
underneath, and from there it is carried down by two spouts into the heads of
the canvas strakes. Each head is made of a thick broad plank, which can be
raised and set upright, and to which on each side are fixed pieces projecting
upward. In this plank there are many cup-like depressions equal in size and
similar in shape, in each of which an egg could be placed. Right down in
these depressions are small crevices which can retain the concentrates of gold
or silver, and when the hollows are nearly filled with these materials, the
plank is raised on one side so that the concentrates will fall into a large bowl. The cup-like depressions are washed out by dashing them with water.
These
A—FIRST MACHINE. B—ITS STAMPS. C—ITS MORTAR-BOX. D—SECOND MACHINE.
E—ITS STAMPS. F—ITS MORTAR-BOX. G—THIRD MACHINE. H—ITS STAMPS. I—ITS
MORTAR-BOX. K—FOURTH MACHINE. L—ITS STAMPS. M—ITS MORTAR-BOX.
settled on the canvas. This bowl is smooth and two digits wide and deep,
being in shape very similar to a small boat; it is broad in the fore part,
narrow in the back, and in the middle of it there is a cross groove, in which
the particles of pure gold or silver settle, while the grains of sand, since they
are lighter, flow out of it.
In some parts of Moravia, gold ore, which consists of quartz mixed with
gold, is placed under the stamps and crushed wet. When crushed fine it
flows out through a launder into a trough, is there stirred by a wooden
scrubber, and the minute particles of gold which settle in the upper end of
the trough are washed in a black bowl.
A—STAMPS. B—MORTAR. C—PLATES FULL OF HOLES. D—TRANSVERSE LAUNDER.
E—PLANKS FULL OF CUP-LIKE DEPRESSIONS. F—SPOUT. G—BOWL INTO WHICH THE
CONCENTRATES FALL. H—CANVAS STRAKE. I—BOWLS SHAPED LIKE A SMALL BOAT.
K—SETTLING-PIT UNDER THE CANVAS STRAKE.
So far I have spoken of machines which crush wet ore with iron-shod
stamps. I will now explain the methods of washing which are in a measure
peculiar to the ore of certain metals, beginning with gold. The ore which
contains particles of this metal, and the sand of streams and rivers which
are also washed in troughs. More than one method is employed for washing
on frames, for these frames either pass or retain the particles or concentrates
of gold; they pass them if they have holes, and retain them if they have
no holes. But either the frame itself has holes, or a box is substituted for
it; if the frame itself is perforated it passes the particles or concentrates
of gold into a trough; if the box has them, it passes the gold material into
the long sluice. I will first speak of these two methods of washing.
The
frame is made of two planks joined together, and is twelve feet long and
three feet wide, and is full of holes large enough for a pea to pass. To prevent
the ore or sand with which the gold is mixed from falling out at the sides,
small projecting edge-boards are fixed to it. This frame is set upon two
stools, the first of which is higher than the second, in order that the gravel
and small stones can roll down it. The washer throws the ore or sand into
the head of the frame, which is higher, and opening the small launder, lets
the water into it, and then agitates it with a wooden scrubber. In this way,
the gravel and small stones roll down the frame on to the ground, while the
A—HEAD OF FRAME. B—FRAME. C—HOLES. D—EDGE-BOARDS. E—STOOLS
F—SCRUBBER. G—TROUGH. H—LAUNDER. I—BOWL.
holes into the trough which is placed under the frame, and after being
collected are washed in the bowl.
A box which has a bottom made of a plate full of holes, is placed over
the upper end of a sluice, which is fairly long but of moderate width. The
gold material to be washed is thrown into this box, and a great quantity of
water is let in. The lumps, if ore is being washed, are mashed with an iron
shovel. The fine portions fall through the bottom of the box into the sluice,
but the coarse pieces remain in the box, and these are removed with a scraper
through an opening which is nearly in the middle of one side. Since a large
amount of water is necessarily let into the box, in order to prevent it from
sweeping away any particles of gold which have fallen into the sluice, the
sluice is divided off by ten, or if it is as long again, by fifteen riffles. These
riffles are placed equidistant from one another, and each is higher than the one
next toward the lower end of the sluice. The little compartments which are
thus made are filled with the material and the water which flows through
A—SLUICE. B—BOX. C—BOTTOM OF INVERTED BOX. D—OPEN PART OF IT. E—IRON
HOE. F—RIFFLES. G—SMALL LAUNDER. H—BOWL WITH WHICH SETTLINGS ARE TAKEN
AWAY. I—BLACK BOWL IN WHICH THEY ARE WASHED.
to flow over clear, the little launder through which this water enters into the
box is closed, and the water is turned in another direction. Then the
lowest riffle is removed from the sluice, and the sediment which has
accumulated flows out with the water and is caught in a bowl. The
riffles are removed one by one and the sediment from each is taken into a
separate bowl, and each is separately washed and cleansed in a bowl. The
larger particles of gold concentrates settle in the higher compartments, the
smaller size, in the lower compartments. This bowl is shallow and smooth,
and smeared with oil or some other slippery substance, so that the tiny particles
of gold may not cling to it, and it is painted black, that the gold may be more
easily discernible; on the exterior, on both sides and in the middle, it is
slightly hollowed out in order that it may be grasped and held firmly in the
hands when shaken. By this method the particles or concentrates of gold
settle in the back part of the bowl; for if the back part of the bowl is
tapped or shaken with one hand, as is usual, the contents move toward the
fore part. In this way the Moravians, especially, wash gold ore.
The gold particles are also caught on frames which are either bare or
covered. If bare, the particles are caught in pockets; if covered, they
A—PLANK. B—SIDE-BOARDS. C—IRON WIRE. D—HANDLES.
Pockets are made in various ways, either with iron
wire or small cross-boards fixed to the frame, or by holes which are sunk
into the sluice itself or into its head, but which do not quite go through. These holes are round or square, or are grooves running crosswise.
The
frames are either covered with skins, pieces of cloth, or turf, which I will
deal with one by one in turn.
In order to prevent the sand which contains the particles of gold from
spilling out, the washer fixes side-boards to the edges of a plank which is six
feet long and one and a quarter wide. He then lays crosswise many iron
wires a digit apart, and where they join he fixes them to the bottom plank
with iron nails. Then he makes the head of the frame higher, and into this
he throws the sand which needs washing, and taking in his hands the handles
which are at the head of the frame, he draws it backward and forward
several times in the river or stream. In this way the small stones and gravel
flow down along the frame, and the sand mixed with particles of gold remains
in the pockets between the strips. When the contents of the pockets have
been shaken out and collected in one place, he washes them in a bowl and
thus cleans the gold dust.
Other people, among whom are the Lusitanians
sluice, which is about six feet long and a foot and a half broad, many cross
strips or riffles, which project backward and are a digit apart. The washer
or his wife lets the water into the head of the sluice, where he throws the sand
which contains the particles of gold. As it flows down he agitates it with a
wooden scrubber, which he moves transversely to the riffles. He constantly
removes with a pointed wooden stick the sediment which settles in the pockets
between the riffles, and in this way the particles of gold settle in them,
while the sand and other valueless materials are carried by the water into a
tub placed below the sluice. He removes the particles of metal with a small
wooden shovel into a wooden bowl. This bowl does not exceed a foot and a
quarter in breadth, and by moving it up and down in the stream he cleanses
the gold dust, for the remaining sand flows out of the dish, and the gold dust
settles in the middle of it, where there is a cup-like depression. Some make
use of a bowl which is grooved inside like a shell, but with a smooth lip where
the water flows out. This smooth place, however, is narrower where the
grooves run into it, and broader where the water flows out.
A—HEAD OF THE SLUICE. B—RIFFLES. C—WOODEN SCRUBBER. D—POINTED STICK.
E—DISH. F—ITS CUP-LIKE DEPRESSION. G—GROOVED DISH.
The cup-like pockets and grooves are cut or burned at the same time into
the bottom of the sluice; the bottom is composed of three planks ten feet
long, and is about four feet wide; but the lower end, through which the water
is discharged, is narrower. This sluice, which likewise has side-boards fixed
to its edges, is full of rounded pockets and of grooves which lead to them,
there being two grooves to one pocket, in order that the water mixed with
sand may flow into each pocket through the upper groove, and that after the
sand has partly settled, the water may again flow out through the lower
groove. The sluice is set in the river or stream or on the bank, and placed
on two stools, of which the first is higher than the second in order that the
gravel and small stones may roll down the sluice. The washer throws sand
into the head with a shovel, and opening the launder, lets in the water, which
carries the particles of metal with a little sand down into the pockets, while
the gravel and small stones with the rest of the sand falls into a tub placed
below the sluice. As soon as the pockets are filled, he brushes out the
concentrates and washes them in a bowl. He washes again and again
through this sluice.
A—HEAD OF THE SLUICE. B—SIDE-BOARDS. C—LOWER END OF THE SLUICE.
D—POCKETS. E—GROOVES. F—STOOLS. G—SHOVEL. H—TUB SET BELOW.
I—LAUNDER.
Some people cut a number of cross-grooves, one palm distant from each
other, in a sluice similarly composed of three planks eight feet long. The
upper edge of these grooves is sloping, that the particles of gold may slip into
them when the washer stirs the sand with a wooden shovel; but their lower
edge is vertical so that the gold particles may thus be unable to slide
out of them. As soon as these grooves are full of gold particles mixed
with fine sand, the sluice is removed from the stools and raised up on its
head. The head in this case is nothing but the upper end of the planks
of which the sluice is composed. In this way the metallic particles, being
turned over backward, fall into another tub, for the small stones and gravel
have rolled down the sluice. Some people place large bowls under the
sluice instead of tubs, and as in the other cases, the unclean concentrates are
washed in the small bowl.
The Thuringians cut rounded pockets, a digit in diameter and depth, in
the head of the sluice, and at the same time they cut grooves reaching from
one to another. The sluice itself they cover with canvas.
The sand which
A—CROSS GROOVES. B—TUB SET UNDER THE SLUICE. C—ANOTHER TUB.
is to be washed, is thrown into the head and stirred with a wooden scrubber;
in this way the water carries the light particles of gold on to the canvas,
and the heavy ones sink in the pockets, and when these hollows are full, the
head is removed and turned over a tub, and the concentrates are collected
and washed in a bowl. Some people make use of a sluice which has square
pockets with short vertical recesses which hold the particles of gold. Other
workers use a sluice made of planks, which are rough by reason of the very
small shavings which still cling to them; these sluices are used instead of
those with coverings, of which this sluice is bare, and when the sand is washed,
the particles of gold cling no less to these shavings than to canvas, or skins, or
cloths, or turf. The washer sweeps the sluice upward with a broom, and
when he has washed as much of the sand as he wishes, he lets a more abundant
supply of water into the sluice again to wash out the concentrates, which he
collects in a tub set below the sluice, and then washes again in a bowl. Just
as Thuringians cover the sluice with canvas, so some people cover it with
the skins of oxen or horses. They push the auriferous sand upward with a
wooden scrubber, and by this system the light material flows away with the
water, while the particles of gold settle among the hairs; the skins are
afterward washed in a tub; and the concentrates are colleced in a bowl.
A—SLUICE COVERED WITH CANVAS. B—ITS HEAD FULL OF POCKETS AND GROOVES.
C—HEAD REMOVED AND WASHED IN A TUB. D—SLUICE WHICH HAS SQUARE POCKETS.
E—SLUICE TO WHOSE PLANKS SMALL SHAVINGS CLING. F—BROOM. G—SKINS OF OXEN.
H—WOODEN SCRUBBER.
The Colchians
since many particles of gold had clung to them when they were removed,
A—SPRING. B—SKIN. C—ARGONAUTS.
the poets invented the “golden fleece” of the Colchians. In like manner,
it can be contrived by the methods of miners that skins should take up, not
only particles of gold, but also of silver and gems.
Many people cover the frame with a green cloth as long and wide as the
frame itself, and fasten it with iron nails in such a way that they can easily
A—HEAD OF FRAME. B—FRAME. C—CLOTH. D—SMALL LAUNDER. E—TUB SET
BELOW THE FRAME. F—TUB IN WHICH CLOTH IS WASHED.
draw them out and remove the cloth. When the cloth appears to be golden
because of the particles which adhere to it, it is washed in a special tub and
the particles are collected in a bowl. The remainder which has run down into
the tub is again washed on the frame.
Some people, in place of a green cloth, use a cloth of tightly woven
horsehair, which has a rough knotty surface. Since these knots stand out
A—CLOTH FULL OF SMALL KNOTS, SPREAD OUT. B—SMALL KNOTS MORE CONSPICUOUSLY
SHOWN. C—TUB IN WHICH CLOTH IS WASHED.
and the cloth is rough, even the very small particles of gold adhere to it;
these cloths are likewise washed in a tub with water.
Some people construct a frame not unlike the one covered with canvas,
but shorter. In place of the canvas they set pieces of turf in rows.
They
A—HEAD OF FRAME. B—SMALL LAUNDER THROUGH WHICH WATER FLOWS INTO HEAD OF
FRAME. C—PIECES OF TURF. D—TROUGH PLACED UNDER FRAME. E—TUB IN WHICH
PIECES OF TURF ARE WASHED.
wash the sand, which has been thrown into the head of the frame, by letting
in water. In this way the particles of gold settle in the turf, the mud and
sand, together with the water, are carried down into the settling-pit or trough
below, which is opened when the work is finished. After all the water has
passed out of the settling-pit, the sand and mud are carried away and washed
over again in the same manner. The particles which have clung to the turf
are afterward washed down into the settling-pit or trough by a stronger
current of the water, which is let into the frame through a small launder. The concentrates are finally collected and washed in a bowl.
Pliny was not
ignorant of this method of washing gold. “The ulex,” he says, “after being
dried, is burnt, and its ashes are washed over a grassy turf, that the gold
may settle on it.”
A—TRAY. B—BOWL-LIKE DEPRESSION. C—HANDLES.
Sand mixed with particles of gold is also washed in a tray, or in a trough
or bowl. The tray is open at the further end, is either hewn out of a
squared trunk of a tree or made out of a thick plank to which side-boards
are fixed, and is three feet long, a foot and a half wide, and three digits
deep. The bottom is hollowed out into the shape of an elongated bowl whose
narrow end is turned toward the head, and it has two long handles, by which
it is drawn backward and forward in the river. In this way the fine sand
is washed, whether it contains particles of gold or the little black stones from
which tin is made.
The Italians who come to the German mountains seeking gold, in order
to wash the river sand which contains gold-dust and garnets,
long shallow trough hewn out of a tree, rounded within and without, open
at one end and closed at the other, which they turn in the bed of the stream
in such a way that the water does not dash into it, but flows in gently. They stir the sand, which they throw into it, with a wooden hoe, also
rounded. To prevent the particles of gold or garnets from running out with
the light sand, they close the end with a board similarly rounded, but lower
than the sides of the trough. The concentrates of gold or garnets which,
A—TROUGH. B—ITS OPEN END. C—END THAT MAY BE CLOSED. D—STREAM.
E—HOE. F—END-BOARD. G—BAG.
with a small quantity of heavy sand, have settled in the trough, they wash
in a bowl and collect in bags and carry away with them.
Some people wash this kind of sand in a large bowl which can easily be
shaken, the bowl being suspended by two ropes from a beam in a building. The sand is thrown into it, water is poured in, then the bowl is shaken, and
the muddy water is poured out and clear water is again poured in, this being
done again and again. In this way, the gold particles settle in the back part
of the bowl because they are heavy, and the sand in the front part because it
is light; the latter is thrown away, the former kept for smelting. The one
who does the washing then returns immediately to his task. This method
of washing is rarely used by miners, but frequently by coiners and goldsmiths
when they wash gold, silver, or copper. The bowl they employ has only
three handles, one of which they grasp in their hands when they shake the
bowl, and in the other two is fastened a rope by which the bowl is hung from
a beam, or from a cross-piece which is upheld by the forks of two upright
posts fixed in the ground. Miners frequently wash ore in a small bowl to test
A—LARGE BOWL B—ROPES. C—BEAM. D—OTHER LARGE BOWL WHICH COINERS
USE. E—SMALL BOWL.
it. This bowl, when shaken, is held in one hand and thumped with the other
hand. In other respects this method of washing does not differ from the
last.
I have spoken of the various methods of washing sand which contains
grains of gold; I will now speak of the methods of washing the material in
which are mixed the small black stones from which tin is madeEight
such methods are in use, and of these two have been invented lately. Such
metalliferous material is usually found torn away from veins and stringers
and scattered far and wide by the impetus of water, although sometimes The miners dig out the latter material
with a broad mattock, while they dig the former with a pick. But they dig
out the little stones, which are not rare in this kind of ore, with an instrument
like the bill of a duck. In districts which contain this material, if there is
an abundant supply of water, and if there are valleys or gentle slopes and
hollows, so that rivers can be diverted into them, the washers in summer
A—STREAM. B—DITCH. C—MATTOCK. D—PIECES OF TURF. E—SEVEN-PRONGED FORK.
F—IRON SHOVEL. G—TROUGH. H—ANOTHER TROUGH BELOW IT. I—SMALL WOODEN TROWEL.
it rapidly. Into the ditch is thrown the metallic material, together with the
surface material, which is six feet thick, more or less, and often contains moss,
roots of plants, shrubs, trees, and earth; they are all thrown in with a broad
mattock, and the water flows through the ditch. The sand and tin-stone, as
they are heavy, sink to the bottom of the ditch, while the moss and roots, as
they are light, are carried away by the water which flows through the ditch. The bottom of the ditch is obstructed with turf and stones in order to prevent
the water from carrying away the tin-stone at the same time. The washers,
whose feet are covered with high boots made of hide, though not of rawhide,
themselves stand in the ditch and throw out of it the roots of the trees,
shrubs, and grass with seven-pronged wooden forks, and push back the tin
stone toward the head of the ditch. After four weeks, in which they have
devoted much work and labour, they raise the tin-stone in the following
way; the sand with which it is mixed is repeatedly lifted from the ditch
A—TROUGH. B—WOODEN SHOVEL. C—TUB. D—LAUNDER. E—WOODEN TROWEL.
F—TRANSVERSE TROUGH. G—PLUG. H—FALLING WATER. I—DITCH. K—BARROW
CONVEYING MATERIAL TO BE WASHED. L—PICK LIKE THE BEAK OF A DUCK WITH WHICH
THE MINER DIGS OUT THE MATERIAL FROM WHICH THE SMALL STONES ARE OBTAINED.
sand flows away and only the tin-stone remains on the shovel. The tin
stone is all collected together and washed again in a trough by pushing it
up and turning it over with a wooden trowel, in order that the remaining
sand may separate from it. Afterward they return to their task, which they
continue until the metalliferous material is exhausted, or until the water can
no longer be diverted into the ditches.
The trough which I mentioned is hewn out of the trunk of a tree and the
interior is five feet long, three-quarters of a foot deep, and six digits wide. It is placed on an incline and under it is put a tub which contains interwoven
fir twigs, or else another trough is put under it, the interior of which is three
feet long and one foot wide and deep; the fine tin-stone, which has run out
with the water, settles in the bottom. Some people, in place of a trough,
put a square launder underneath, and in like manner they wash the tin
stone in this by agitating it up and down and turning it over with a small
wooden trowel. A transverse trough is put under the launder, which is
either open on one end and drains off into a tub or settling-pit, or else is
closed and perforated through the bottom; in this case, it drains into a
ditch beneath, where the water falls when the plug has been partly removed. The nature of this ditch I will now describe.
If the locality does not supply an abundance of water, the washers dig a
ditch thirty or thirty-six feet long, and cover the bottom, the full length, with
logs joined together and hewn on the side which lies flat on the ground. On
each side of the ditch, and at its head also, they place four logs, one above
the other, all hewn smooth on the inside. But since the logs are laid
obliquely along the sides, the upper end of the ditch is made four feet wide
and the tail end, two feet. The water has a high drop from a launder and
first of all it falls into interlaced fir twigs, in order that it shall fall straight
down for the most part in an unbroken stream and thus break up the lumps
by its weight. Some do not place these twigs under the end of the launder,
but put a plug in its mouth, which, since it does not entirely close the launder,
nor altogether prevent the discharge from it, nor yet allow the water to
spout far afield, makes it drop straight down. The workman brings in a
wheelbarrow the material to be washed, and throws it into the ditch. The
washer standing in the upper end of the ditch breaks the lumps with a seven
pronged fork, and throws out the roots of trees, shrubs, and grass with the
same instrument, and thereby the small black stones settle down. When a
large quantity of the tin-stone has accumulated, which generally happens
when the washer has spent a day at this work, to prevent it from being
washed away he places it upon the bank, and other material having been
again thrown into the upper end of the ditch, he continues the task of washing. A boy stands at the lower end of the ditch, and with a thin pointed hoe
stirs up the sediment which has settled at the lower end, to prevent the
washed tin-stone from being carried further, which occurs when the sediment
has accumulated to such an extent that the fir branches at the outlet of the
ditch are covered.
A—LAUNDER. B—INTERLACING FIR TWIGS. C—LOGS; THREE ON ONE SIDE, FOR THE
FOURTH CANNOT BE SEEN BECAUSE THE DITCH IS SO FULL WITH MATERIAL NOW BEING
WASHED. D—LOGS AT THE HEAD OF THE DITCH. E—BARROW. F—SEVEN-PRONGED
FORK. G—HOE
The third method of washing materials of this kind follows.
Two
strakes are made, each of which is twelve feet long and a foot and a
half wide and deep. A tank is set at their head, into which the water flows
through a little launder. A boy throws the ore into one strake; if it is of
poor quality he puts in a large amount of it, if it is rich he puts in less. The
water is let in by removing the plug, the ore is stirred with a wooden shovel,
and in this way the tin-stone, mixed with the heavier material, settles
in the bottom of the strake, and the water carries the light material into the
launder, through which it flows on to a canvas strake. The very fine tin
stone, carried by the water, settles on to the canvas and is cleansed. A low
cross-board is placed in the strake near the head, in order that the largest
sized tin-stone may settle there. As soon as the strake is filled with the
material which has been washed, he closes the mouth of the tank and continues
washing in the other strake, and then the plug is withdrawn and the
water and tin-stone flow down into a tank below. Then he pounds the sides
A—STRAKES. B—TANK. C—LAUNDER. D—PLUG. E—WOODEN SHOVEL.
F—WOODEN MALLET. G—WOODEN SHOVEL WITH SHORT HANDLE. H—THE PLUG
IN THE STRAKE. I—TANK PLACED UNDER THE PLUG.
of the loaded strake with a wooden mallet, in order that the tin-stone clinging
to the sides may fall off; all that has settled in it, he throws out with a
wooden shovel which has a short handle. Silver slags which have been
crushed under the stamps, also fragments of silver-lead alloy and of cakes
melted from pyrites, are washed in a strake of this kind.
Material of this kind is also washed while wet, in a sieve whose bottom
is made of woven iron wire, and this is the fourth method of washing. The
sieve is immersed in the water which is contained in a tub, and is violently
shaken. The bottom of this tub has an opening of such size that as much
water, together with tailings from the sieve, can flow continuously out of it as
water flows into it. The material which settles in the strake, a boy either
digs over with a three-toothed iron rake or sweeps with a wooden scrubber;
in this way the water carries off a great part of both sand and mud. The
tin-stone or metalliferous concentrates settle in the strake and are afterward
washed in another strake.
These are ancient methods of washing material which contains tin
stone; there follow two modern methods. If the tin-stone mixed with
A—SIEVE. B—TUB. C—WATER FLOWING OUT OF THE BOTTOM OF IT. D—STRAKE.
E—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE. F—WOODEN SCRUBBER.
earth or sand is found on the slopes of mountains or hills, or in the level fields
which are either devoid of streams or into which a stream cannot be diverted,
miners have lately begun to employ the following method of washing, even
in the winter months. An open box is constructed of planks, about six
feet long, three feet wide, and two feet and one palm deep. At the upper
end on the inside, an iron plate three feet long and wide is fixed, at a depth
of one foot and a half from the top; this plate is very full of holes, through
which tin-stone about the size of a pea can fall. A trough hewn from a tree
is placed under the box, and this trough is about twenty-four feet long and
three-quarters of a foot wide and deep; very often three cross-boards are
placed in it, dividing it off into compartments, each one of which is lower
than the next. The turbid waters discharge into a settling-pit.
The metalliferous material is sometimes found not very deep beneath
the surface of the earth, but sometimes so deep that it is necessary to drive
tunnels and sink shafts. It is transported to the washing-box in wheel
barrows, and when the washers are about to begin they lay a small launder,
A—BOX. B—PERFORATED PLATE. C—TROUGH. D—CROSS-BOARDS. E—POOL.
F—LAUNDER. G—SHOVEL. H—RAKE.
for this washing. Next, a boy throws the metalliferous material on to the
iron plate with an iron shovel and breaks the small lumps, stirring them this
way and that with the same implement. Then the water and sand penetra
ting the holes of the plate, fall into the box, while all the coarse gravel remains
on the plate, and this he throws into a wheelbarrow with the same shovel. Meantime, a younger boy continually stirs the sand under the plate with a
wooden scrubber nearly as wide as the box, and drives it to the upper end of
the box; the lighter material, as well as a small amount of tin-stone, is
carried by the water down into the underlying trough. The boys carry on
this labour without intermission until they have filled four wheelbarrows
with the coarse and worthless residues, which they carry off and throw away, or
three wheelbarrows if the material is rich in black tin. Then the foreman
has the plank removed which was in front of the iron plate, and on which the
boy stood. The sand, mixed with the tin-stone, is frequently pushed backward
and forward with a scrubber, and the same sand, because it is lighter, takes
the upper place, and is removed as soon as it appears; that which takes the
lower place is turned over with a spade, in order that any that is light
can flow away; when all the tin-stone is heaped together, he shovels it out
of the box and carries it away. While the foreman does this, one boy with
an iron hoe stirs the sand mixed with fine tin-stone, which has run out of the
box and has settled in the trough and pushes it back to the uppermost part
of the trough, and this material, since it contains a very great amount of tin
stone, is thrown on to the plate and washed again. The material which has
settled in the lowest part of the trough is taken out separately and piled in a
heap, and is washed on the ordinary strake; that which has settled in the
pool is washed on the canvas strake. In the summer-time this fruitful
labour is repeated more often, in fact ten or eleven times. The tin-stone
which the foreman removes from the box, is afterward washed in a jigging
sieve, and lastly in a tub, where at length all the sand is separated out. Finally, any material in which are mixed particles of other metals, can be
washed by all these methods, whether it has been disintegrated from veins or
stringers, or whether it originated from
rivers.
The sixth method of washing material of this kind is even more modern
and more useful than the last. Two boxes are constructed, into each of
which water flows through spouts from a cross trough into which it has been
discharged through a pipe or launder. When the material has been agitated
and broken up with iron shovels by two boys, part of it runs down and falls
through the iron plates full of holes, or through the iron grating, and flows
out of the box over a sloping surface into another cross trough, and from
this into a strake seven feet long and two and a half feet wide. Then
the foreman again stirs it with a wooden scrubber that it may become
clean. As for the material which has flowed down with the water and settled
in the third cross trough, or in the launder which leads from it, a third boy
rakes it with a two-toothed rake; in this way the fine tin-stone settles down
A—LAUNDER. B—CROSS TROUGH. C—TWO SPOUTS. D—BOXES. E—PLATE.
F—
GRATING. G—SHOVELS. H—SECOND CROSS TROUGH. I—STRAKE. K—WOODEN
SCRUBBER. L—THIRD CROSS TROUGH. M—LAUNDER. N—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE.
and the water carries off the valueless sand into the creek. This method
of washing is most advantageous, for four men can do the work of washing
in two boxes, while the last method, if doubled, requires six men, for it requires
two boys to throw the material to be washed on to the plate and to stir it
with iron shovels; two more are required with wooden scrubbers to keep
stirring the sand, mixed with the tin-stone, under the plate, and to push it
toward the upper end of the box; further, two foremen are required
to clean the tin-stone in the way I have described. In the place of a plate
full of holes, they now fix in the boxes a grating made of iron wire as
thick as the stalks of rye; that these may not be depressed by the weight
and become bent, three iron bars support them, being laid crosswise under
neath. To prevent the grating from being broken by the iron shovels with
which the material is stirred in washing, five or six iron rods are placed on
top in cross lines, and are fixed to the box so that the shovels may rub them
instead of the grating; for this reason the grating lasts longer than the
easily be replaced by others.
Miners use the seventh method of washing when there is no stream of
water in the part of the mountain which contains the black tin, or particles of
gold, or of other metals. In this case they frequently dig more than fifty
ditches on the slope below, or make the same number of pits, six feet long,
three feet wide, and three-quarters of a foot deep, not any great distance
from each other. At the season when a torrent rises from storms of
great violence or long duration, and rushes down the mountain, some of
the miners dig the metalliferous material in the woods with broad hoes and
A—PITS. B—TORRENT. C—SEVEN-PRONGED FORK. D—SHOVEL.
drag it to the torrent. Other miners divert the torrent into the ditches or
pits, and others throw the roots of trees, shrubs, and grass out of the ditches
or pits with seven-pronged wooden forks. When the torrent has run down,
they remove with shovels the uncleansed tin-stone or particles of metal which
have settled in the ditches or pits, and cleanse it.
The eighth method is also employed in the regions which the Lusitanians
hold in their power and sway, and is not dissimilar to the last. They drive
the mountains. Into these ditches the water, whether flowing down from
snow melted by the heat of the sun or from rain, collects and carries together
with earth and sand, sometimes tin-stone, or, in the case of the Lusitanians,
the particles of gold loosened from veins and stringers. As soon as the
waters of the torrent have all run away, the miners throw the material out
of the ditches with iron shovels, and wash it in a common sluice box.
A—GULLY. B—DITCH. C—TORRENT. D—SLUICE BOX EMPLOYED BY THE
LUSITANIANS.
The Poles wash the impure lead from
feet long, three feet wide, and one and one-quarter feet deep. It is mixed
with moist earth and is covered by a wet and sandy clay, and so
first of all the clay, and afterward the ore, is dug out. The ore is carried
to a stream or river, and thrown into a trough into which water is admitted
by a little launder, and the washer standing at the lower end of the trough
drags the ore out with a narrow and nearly pointed hoe, whose wooden handle
is nearly ten feet long. It is washed over again once or twice in the same
way and thus made pure. Afterward when it has been dried in the sun
pass through the sieve from the larger ones. of these the former are smelted
in a faggot pile and the latter in the furnace. Of such a number then are
the methods of washing.
A—TROUGH. B—LAUNDER. C—HOE. D—SIEVE.
One method of burning is principally employed, and two of roasting.
The black tin is burned by a hot fire in a furnace similar to an oven
is burned if it is a dark-blue colour, or if pyrites and the stone from which
iron is made are mixed with it, for the dark blue colour if not burnt, consumes
the tin. If pyrites and the other stone are not volatilised into fumes in a
furnace of this kind, the tin which is made from the tin-stone is impure. The tin-stone is thrown either into the back part of the furnace, or into one
side of it; but in the former case the wood is placed in front, in the latter
case alongside, in such a manner, however, that neither firebrands nor
coals may fall upon the tin-stone itself or touch it. The fuel is manipulated
by a poker made of wood. The tin-stone is now stirred with a rake with two
The very fine tin-stone requires to be burned less than that of moderate size,
and this again less than that of the largest size. While the tin-stone is being
thus burned, it frequently happens that some of the material runs together.
A—FURNACE. B—ITS MOUTH. C—POKER. D—RAKE WITH TWO TEETH. E—HOE.
The burned tin-stone should then be washed again on the strake, for in this
way the material which has been run together is carried away by the water
into the cross-trough, where it is gathered up and worked over, and again
washed on the strake. By this method the metal is separated from that
which is devoid of metal.
Cakes from pyrites, or
rangular pits, of which the front and top are open, and these pits are generally
twelve feet long, eight feet wide, and three feet deep. The cakes of melted
pyrites are usually roasted twice over, and those of These latter
are first rolled in mud moistened with vinegar, to prevent the fire from con
suming too much of the copper with the bitumen, or sulphur, or orpiment, or
realgar. The cakes of pyrites are first roasted in a slow fire and afterward in
a fierce one, and in both cases, during the whole following night, water is let in,
of injuring the metals, although it rarely does injure them, the water may
remove it and make the cakes soft. The solidified juices are nearly all
harmful to the metal, when cakes or ore of this kind are smelted. The cakes
which are to be roasted are placed on wood piled up in the form of a crate,
and this pile is fired
A—PITS. B—WOOD. C—CAKES. D—LAUNDER.
The cakes which are made of copper smelted from schist are first thrown
upon the ground and broken, and then placed in the furnace on bundles of
faggots, and these are lighted. These cakes are generally roasted seven
times and occasionally nine times. While this is being done, if they are
These furnaces have
a structure like the structure of the furnaces in which ore is smelted, except
that they are open in front; they are six feet high and four feet wide. As
for this kind of furnace, three of them are required for one of those in which
the cakes are melted. First of all they are roasted in the first furnace, then
when they are cooled, they are transferred into the second furnace and again
roasted; later they are carried to the third, and afterward back to the first,
and this order is preserved until they have been roasted seven or nine times.
A—CAKES. B—BUNDLES OF FAGGOTS. C—FURNACES.
END OF BOOK VIII.
Since I have written of the varied work of pre
paring the ores, I will now write of the various
methods of smelting them. Although those who
burn, roast and calcine
thing which is mixed or combined with the metals;
and those who crush it with stamps take away much;
and those who wash, screen and sort it, take away
still more; yet they cannot remove all which con
ceals the metal from the eye and renders it crude
and unformed. Wherefore smelting is necessary, for by this means earths,
solidified juices, and stones are separated from the metals so that they
obtain their proper colour and become pure, and may be of great use to
mankind in many ways. When the ore is smelted, those things which
were mixed with the metal before it was melted are driven forth, because
the metal is perfected by fire in this manner. Since metalliferous ores
differ greatly amongst themselves, first as to the metals which they con
tain, then as to the quantity of the metal which is in them, and then by
the fact that some are rapidly melted by fire and others slowly, there are,
therefore, many methods of smelting. Constant practice has taught the
any one ore. Moreover, while sometimes there are many methods of
smelting the same ore, by which an equal weight of metal is melted out, yet
one is done at a greater cost and labour than the others. Ore is either melted
with a furnace or without one; if smelted with a furnace the tap-hole is either
temporarily closed or always open, and if smelted without a furnace, it is done
either in pots or in trenches. But in order to make this matter clearer, I will
describe each in detail, beginning with the buildings and the furnaces.
A wall which will be called the “second wall” is constructed of brick
or stone, two feet and as many palms thick, in order that it may be strong
enough to bear the weight. It is built fifteen feet high, and its length depends
on the number of furnaces which are put in the works; there are usually
six furnaces, rarely more, and often less. There are three furnace walls, a
back one which is against the “second” wall, and two side ones, of which I
will speak later. These should be made of natural stone, as this is more
serviceable than burnt bricks, because bricks soon become defective and
crumble away, when the smelter or his deputy chips off the accretions which
adhere to the walls when the ore is smelted. Natural stone resists injury
by the fire and lasts a long time, especially that which is soft and devoid
of cracks; but, on the contrary, that which is hard and has many cracks
is burst asunder by the fire and destroyed. For this reason, furnaces which
are made of the latter are easily weakened by the fire, and when the accretions
are chipped off they crumble to pieces. The front furnace wall should be
made of brick, and there should be in the lower part a mouth three palms
wide and one and a half feet high, when the hearth is completed. A hole
slanting upward, three palms long, is made through the back furnace wall, at
the height of a cubit, before the hearth has been prepared; through this
hole and a hole one foot long in the “second” wall—as the back of this wall
has an arch—is inserted a pipe of iron or bronze, in which are fixed the nozzles The whole of the front furnace wall is not more than five feet
high, so that the ore may be conveniently put into the furnace, together with
those things which the master needs for his work of smelting. Both the side
walls of the furnace are six feet high, and the back one seven feet, and they
are three palms thick. The interior of the furnace is five palms wide, six
palms and a digit long, the width being measured by the space which lies
between the two side walls, and the length by the space between the front and
the back walls; however, the upper part of the furnace widens out somewhat.
There are two doors in the second wall if there are six furnaces, one
of the doors being between the second and third furnaces and the other
between the fourth and fifth furnaces. They are a cubit wide and six feet
high, in order that the smelters may not have mishaps in coming and going. It is necessary to have a door to the right of the first furnace, and similarly
one to the left of the last, whether the wall is longer or not. The second
wall is carried further when the rooms for the cupellation furnaces, or any
other building, adjoin the rooms for the blast furnaces, these buildings being
only divided by a partition. The smelter, and the ones who attend to the
first and the last furnaces, if they wish to look at the bellows or to do anything
else, go out through the doors at the end of the wall, and the other people go
through the other doors, which are the common ones. The furnaces are placed
at a distance of six feet from one another, in order that the smelters and their
assistants may more easily sustain the fierceness of the heat. Inasmuch as
the interior of each furnace is five palms wide and each is six feet distant
from the other, and inasmuch as there is a space of four feet three palms at
the right side of the first furnace and as much at the left side of the last
furnace, and there are to be six furnaces in one building, then it is necessary
to make the second wall fifty-two feet long; because the total of the widths
of all of the furnaces is seven and a half feet, the total of the spaces between
the furnaces is thirty feet, the space on the outer sides of the first and last
furnaces is nine feet and two palms, and the thickness of the two transverse
walls is five feet, which make a total measurement of fifty-two feet.
Outside each furnace hearth there is a small pit full of powder which is
compressed by ramming, and in this manner is made the forehearth which
receives the metal flowing from the furnaces. Of this I will speak later.
Buried about a cubit under the forehearth and the hearth of the furnace
is a transverse water-tank, three feet long, three palms wide and a cubit deep. It is made of stone or brick, with a stone cover, for if it were not covered, the
heat would draw the moisture from below and the vapour might be blown
into the hearth of the furnace as well as into the forehearth, and would
dampen the blast. The moisture would vitiate the blast, and part of the
metal would be absorbed and part would be mixed with the slags, and in
this manner the melting would be greatly damaged. From each water-tank
is built a walled vent, to the same depth as the tank, but six digits wide;
A—FURNACES. B—FOREHEARTHS.
side of the wall, against which the furnace is built. At the end of this vent
there is an opening where the steam, into which the water has been converted,
is exhausted through a copper or iron tube or pipe. This method of making
the tank and the vent is much the best. Another kind has a similar vent
but a different tank, for it does not lie transversely under the forehearth,
but lengthwise; it is two feet and a palm long, and a foot and three palms
wide, and a foot and a palm deep. This method of making tanks is not
condemned by us, as is the construction of those tanks without a vent;
the latter, which have no opening into the air through which the vapour may
discharge freely, are indeed to be condemned.
A—FURNACES. B—FOREHEARTH. C—DOOR. D—WATER TANK. E—STONE WHICH
COVERS IT. F—MATERIAL OF THE VENT WALLS. G—STONE WHICH COVERS IT. H—PIPE
EXHALING THE VAPOUR.
Fifteen feet behind the second wall is constructed the first wall, thirteen
feet high. In both of these are fixed roof beams
from one another. As the second wall is two feet higher than the first wall,
recesses are cut in the back of it two feet high, one foot wide, and a palm deep,
and in these recesses, as it were in mortises, are placed one end of each of
the beams. Into these ends are mortised the bottoms of just as many posts;
these posts are twenty-four feet high, three palms wide and thick, and from
the tops of the posts the same number of rafters stretch downward to the
ends of the beams superimposed on the first wall; the upper ends of the
rafters are mortised into the posts and the lower ends are mortised into the
ends of the beams laid on the first wall; the rafters support the roof,
which consists of burnt tiles. Each separate rafter is propped up by a
separate timber, which is a cross-beam, and is joined to its post. Planks
close together are affixed to the posts above the furnaces; these planks are
about two digits thick and a palm wide, and they, together with the wicker
work interposed between the timbers, are covered with lute so that there may
be no risk of fire to the timbers and wicker-work. In this practical manner
is constructed the back part of the works, which contains the bellows, their
frames, the mechanism for compressing the bellows, and the instrument for
distending them, of all of which I will speak hereafter.
In front of the furnaces is constructed the third long wall and likewise
the fourth. Both are nine feet high, but of the same length and thickness as
the other two, the fourth being nine feet distant from the third; the
third is twenty-one and a half feet from the second. At a distance of
twelve feet from the second wall, four posts seven and a half feet high, a cubit
wide and thick, are set upon rock laid underneath. Into the tops of the
posts the roof beam is mortised; this roof beam is two feet and as many
palms longer than the distance between the second and the fifth transverse
walls, in order that its ends may rest on the transverse walls. If there should
not be so long a beam at hand, two are substituted for it. As the length of
the long beam is as above, and as the posts are equidistant, it is necessary
that the posts should be a distance of nine feet, one palm, two and two-fifths
digits from each other, and the end ones this distance from the transverse
walls. On this longitudinal beam and to the third and fourth walls are fixed
twelve secondary beams twenty-four feet long, one foot wide, three palms
thick, and distant from each other three feet, one palm, and two digits. In
these secondary beams, where they rest on the longitudinal beams, are mortised
the ends of the same number of rafters as there are posts which stand on the
second wall. The ends of the rafters do not reach to the tops of the posts,
but are two feet away from them, that through this opening, which is like
the open part of a forge, the furnaces can emit their fumes. In order that
the rafters should not fall down, they are supported partly by iron rods,
which extend from each rafter to the opposite post, and partly supported
by a few tie-beams, which in the same manner extend from some rafters to
the posts opposite, and give them stability. To these tie-beams, as well as
to the rafters which face the posts, a number of boards, about two digits thick
and a palm wide, are fixed at a distance of a palm from each other, and are In the secondary beams,
where they are laid on the fourth wall, are mortised the lower ends of the
same number of rafters as those in a set of raftersFrom
the third long wall these rafters are joined and tied to the ends of the opposite
rafters, so that they may not slip, and besides they are strengthened with
substructures which are made of cross and oblique timbers. The rafters
support the roof.
THE FOUR LONG WALLS: A—FIRST. B—SECOND. C—THIRD. D—FOURTH. THE
SEVEN TRANSVERSE WALLS: E—FIRST. F—SECOND. G—THIRD. H—FOURTH.
I—FIFTH. K—SIXTH. L—SEVENTH, OR MIDDLE.
In this manner the front part of the building is made, and is divided into
three parts; the first part is twelve feet wide and is under the hood, which
consists of two walls, one vertical and one inclined. The second part is the
same number of feet wide and is for the reception of the ore to be smelted,
the fluxes, the charcoal, and other things which are needed by the smelter. The third part is nine feet wide and contains two separate rooms of equal
size, in one of which is the assay furnace, while the other contains the metal
to be melted in the cupellation furnaces. It is thus necessary that in the
of which the first is constructed from the upper end of the first long wall to
the upper end of the second long wall; the second proceeds from the end
of this to the end of the third long wall; the third likewise from this end of
the last extends to the end of the fourth long wall; the fourth leads from
the lower end of the first long wall to the lower end of the second long wall;
the fifth extends from the end of this to the end of the third long wall; the
sixth extends from this last end to the end of the fourth long wall; the
seventh divides into two parts the space between the third and fourth long
walls.
To return to the back part of the building, in which, as I said, are the
bellows
ment for distending them. Each bellows consists of a body and a head.
The body is composed of two “boards,” two bows, and two hides.
The
upper board is a palm thick, five feet and three palms long, and two and a half
feet wide at the back part, where each of the sides is a little curved, and it is
a cubit wide at the front part near the head. The whole of the body of the
bellows tapers toward the head. That which we now call the “board”
consists of two pieces of pine, joined and glued together, and of two strips of
linden wood which bind the edges of the board, these being seven digits
wide at the back, and in front near the head of the bellows one and a half
digits wide. These strips are glued to the boards, so that there shall be less
damage from the iron nails driven through the hide. There are some people
who do not surround the boards with strips, but use boards only, which
are very thick. The upper board has an aperture and a handle; the
aperture is in the middle of the board and is one foot three palms distant
from where the board joins the head of the bellows, and is six digits long and
four wide. The lid for this aperture is two palms and a digit long and wide,
and three digits thick; toward the back of the lid is a little notch cut
into the surface so that it may be caught by the hand; a groove is cut out
of the top of the front and sides, so that it may engage in mouldings a palm
wide and three digits thick, which are also cut out in a similar manner under
the edges. Now, when the lid is drawn forward the hole is closed, and
when drawn back it is opened; the smelter opens the aperture a little so that
the air may escape from the bellows through it, if he fears the hides might be
burst when the bellows are too vigorously and quickly inflated; he, however,
closes the aperture if the hides are ruptured and the air escapes. Others
perforate the upper board with two or three round holes in the same place as
the rectangular one, and they insert plugs in them which they draw out The wooden handle is seven palms long, or even longer,
in order that it may extend outside; one-half of this handle, two palms
wide and one thick, is glued to the end of the board and fastened with pegs
covered with glue; the other half projects beyond the board, and is rounded
and seven digits thick. Besides this, to the handle and to the board is fixed
a cleat two feet long, as many palms wide and one palm thick, and to the under
side of the same board, at a distance of three palms from the end, is fixed
another cleat two feet long, in order that the board may sustain the force
of distension and compression; these two cleats are glued to the board, and
are fastened to it with pegs covered with glue.
The lower bellows-board, like the upper, is made of two pieces of pine
and of two strips of linden wood, all glued together; it is of the same width
and thickness as the upper board, but is a cubit longer, this extension being
part of the head of which I have more to say a little later. This lower bellows
board has an air-hole and an iron ring. The air-hole is about a cubit distant
from the posterior end, and it is midway between the sides of the bellows
board, and is a foot long and three palms wide; it is divided into equal
parts by a small rib which forms part of the board, and is not cut from it;
this rib is a palm long and one-third of a digit wide. The flap of the air
hole is a foot and three digits long, three palms and as many digits wide;
it is a thin board covered with goat skin, the hairy part of which is turned
toward the ground. There is fixed to one end of the flap, with small iron
nails, one-half of a doubled piece of leather a palm wide and as long as the
flap is wide; the other half of the leather, which is behind the flap, is twice
perforated, as is also the bellows-board, and these perforations are seven
digits apart. Passing through these a string is tied on the under side of the
board; and thus the flap when tied to the board does not fall away. In this
manner are made the flap and the air-hole, so when the bellows are distended
the flap opens, when compressed it closes. At a distance of about a foot
beyond the air-hole a slightly elliptical iron ring, two palms long and one
wide, is fastened by means of an iron staple to the under part of the bellows
board; it is at a distance of three palms from the back of the bellows. In
order that the lower bellows-board may remain stationary, a wooden bolt is
driven into the ring, after it penetrates through the hole in the transverse
supporting plank which forms part of the frame for the bellows. There are
some who dispense with the ring and fasten the bellows-board to the frame
with two iron screws something like nails.
The bows are placed between the two boards and are of the same length
as the upper board. They are both made of four pieces of linden wood three
digits thick, of which the two long ones are seven digits wide at the back and
two and a half at the front; the third piece, which is at the back, is two
palms wide. The ends of the bows are a little more than a digit thick, and are
mortised to the long pieces, and both having been bored through, wooden
pegs covered with glue are fixed in the holes; they are thus joined and glued
to the long pieces. Each of the ends is bowed (
the long part of the bow, whence its name “bow” originated. The fourth
the head of the bellows; the ends of this piece are mortised into the ends
of the bow and are joined and glued to them; its length without the tenons
is a foot, and its width a palm and two digits. There are, besides, two other
very small pieces glued to the head of the bellows and to the lower board,
and fastened to them by wooden pegs covered with glue, and they are three
palms and two digits long, one palm high, and a digit thick, one half being
slightly cut away. These pieces keep the ends of the bow away from the
hole in the bellows-head, for if they were not there, the ends, forced inward
by the great and frequent movement, would be broken.
The leather is of ox-hide or horse-hide, but that of the ox is far preferable
to that of the horse. Each of these hides, for there are two, is three and a
half feet wide where they are joined at the back part of the bellows. A
long leathern thong is laid along each of the bellows-boards and each of the
bows, and fastened by T-shaped iron nails five digits long; each of the
horns of the nails is two and a half digits long and half a digit wide. The
hide is attached to the bellows-boards by means of these nails, so that a horn
of one nail almost touches the horn of the next; but it is different with the
bows, for the hide is fastened to the back piece of the bow by only two nails,
and to the two long pieces by four nails. In this practical manner they put
ten nails in one bow and the same number in the other. Sometimes when the
smelter is afraid that the vigorous motion of the bellows may pull or tear
the hide from the bows, he also fastens it with little strips of pine by means of
another kind of nail, but these strips cannot be fastened to the back pieces of
the bow, because these are somewhat bent. Some people do not fix the
hide to the bellows-boards and bows by iron nails, but by iron screws,
screwed at the same time through strips laid over the hide. This method
of fastening the hide is less used than the other, although there is no doubt
that it surpasses it in excellence.
Lastly, the head of the bellows, like the rest of the body, consists of two
boards, and of a nozzle besides. The upper board is one cubit long, one and a
half palms thick. The lower board is part of the whole of the lower bellows
board; it is of the same length as the upper piece, but a palm and a digit
thick. From these two glued together is made the head, into which, when it
has been perforated, the nozzle is fixed. The back part of the head, where
it is attached to the rest of the bellows-body, is a cubit wide, but three palms
forward it becomes two digits narrower. Afterward it is somewhat cut
away so that the front end may be rounded, until it is two palms and as
many digits in diameter, at which point it is bound with an iron ring three
digits wide.
The nozzle is a pipe made of a thin plate of iron; the diameter in front is
three digits, while at the back, where it is encased in the head of the bellows,
it is a palm high and two palms wide. It thus gradually widens out, especially
at the back, in order that a copious wind can penetrate into it; the whole
nozzle is three feet long.
A—UPPER BELLOWS-BOARD. B—LOWER BELLOWS-BOARD. C—THE TWO PIECES OF WOOD
OF WHICH EACH CONSISTS. D—POSTERIOR ARCHED PART OF EACH. E—TAPERED FRONT
PART OF EACH. F—PIECES OF LINDEN WOOD. G—APERTURE IN THE UPPER BOARD.
H—LID. I—LITTLE MOULDINGS OF WOOD. K—HANDLE. L—CLEAT ON THE OUTSIDE.
THE CLEAT INSIDE I AM NOT ABLE TO DEPICT. M—INTERIOR OF THE LOWER BELLOWS
BOARD. N—PART OF THE HEAD. O—AIR-HOLE. P—SUPPORTING BAR. Q—FLAP.
R—HIDE. S—THONG. T—EXTERIOR OF THE LOWER BOARD. V—STAPLE. X—RING.
Y—BOW. Z—ITS LONG PIECES. AA—BACK PIECE OF THE BOW. BB—THE BOWED
ENDS. CC—CROSSBAR DISTENDING THE BOW. DD—THE TWO LITTLE PIECES.
EE—HIDE. FF—NAIL. GG—HORN OF THE NAIL. HH—A SCREW. II—LONG THONG.
KK—HEAD. LL—ITS LOWER BOARD. MM—ITS UPPER BOARD. NN—NOZZLE.
The upper bellows-board is joined to the head of the bellows in the
following way. An iron plate
is first fastened to the head at a distance of three digits from the end; from
this plate there projects a piece three digits long and two wide, curved
in a small circle. The other side has a similar plate.
Then in the same
part of the upper board are fixed two other iron plates, distant two digits
from the edge, each of which are six digits wide and seven long; in each
of these plates the middle part is cut away for a little more than three
digits in length and for two in depth, so that the curved part of the plates
on the head corresponding to them may fit into this cut out part. From
both sides of each plate there project pieces, three digits long and two
digits wide, similarly curved into small circles. A little iron pin is passed
through these curved pieces of the plates, like a little axle, so that the upper
board of the bellows may turn upon it. The little axle is six digits long and a
little more than a digit thick, and a small groove is cut out of the upper
board, where the plates are fastened to it, in such a manner that the little axle
when fixed to the plates may not fall out. Both plates fastened to the
bellows-board are affixed by four iron nails, of which the heads are on the
inner part of the board, whereas the points, clinched at the top, are
transformed into heads, so to speak. Each of the other plates is fastened
to the head of the bellows by means of a nail with a wide head, and by two
other nails of which the heads are on the edge of the bellows-head. Midway
between the two plates on the bellows-board there remains a space two
palms wide, which is covered by an iron plate fastened to the board by
little nails; and another plate corresponding to this is fastened to the head
between the other two plates; they are two palms and the same number
of digits wide.
The hide is common to the head as to all the other parts of the body;
the plates are covered with it, as well as the front part of the upper bellows
board, and both the bows and the back of the head of the bellows, so that the
wind may not escape from that part of the bellows. It is three palms and as
many digits wide, and long enough to extend from one of the sides of the
lower board over the back of the upper; it is fastened by many T-headed
nails on one side to the upper board, and on the other side to the head of
the bellows, and both ends are fastened to the lower bellows-board.
In the above manner the bellows is made.
As two are required for each
furnace, it is necessary to have twelve bellows, if there are to be six furnaces
in one works.
Now it is time to describe their framework.
First, two sills a little
shorter than the furnace wall are placed on the ground. The front one of
these is three palms wide and thick, and the back one three palms and two
digits. The front one is two feet distant from the back wall of the furnace, and
the back one is six feet three palms distant from the front one. They are set into
the earth, that they may remain firm; there are some who accomplish this by
means of pegs which, through several holes, penetrate deeply into the ground.
Then twelve short posts are erected, whose lower ends are mortised into
the sill that is near the back of the furnace wall; these posts are two feet
high, exclusive of the tenons, and are three palms and the same number of
digits wide, and two palms thick. A slot one and a half palms wide is cut
through them, beginning two palms from the bottom and extending for a
height of three palms. All the posts are not placed at the same intervals, the
first being at a distance of three feet five digits from the second, and likewise
the third from the fourth, but the second is two feet one palm and three
digits from the third; the intervals between the other posts are arranged in
the same manner, equal and unequal, of which each four pertain to two
furnaces. The upper ends of these posts are mortised into a transverse
beam which is twelve feet, two palms, and three digits long, and projects
five digits beyond the first post and to the same distance beyond the fourth;
it is two palms and the same number of digits wide, and two palms thick. Since each separate transverse beam supports four bellows, it is necessary to
have three of them.
Behind the twelve short posts the same number of higher posts are
erected, of which each has the middle part of the lower end cut out, so that
its two resulting lower ends are mortised into the back sill; these posts,
exclusive of the tenons, are twelve feet and two palms high, and are five palms
wide and two palms thick. They are cut out from the bottom upward, the
slot being four feet and five digits high and six digits wide. The upper ends of
these posts are mortised into a long beam imposed upon them; this long
beam is placed close under the timbers which extend from the wall at the
back of the furnace to the first long wall; the beam is three palms wide
and two palms thick, and forty-three feet long. If such a long one is
not at hand, two or three may be substituted for it, which when joined together
make up that length. These higher posts are not placed at equal distances,
but the first is at a distance of two feet three palms one digit from the second,
and the third is at the same distance from the fourth; while the second is at a
distance of one foot three palms and the same number of digits from the
third, and in the same manner the rest of the posts are arranged at equal
and unequal intervals. Moreover, there is in every post, where it faces the
shorter post, a mortise at a foot and a digit above the slot; in these mortises
of the four posts is tenoned a timber which itself has four mortises. Tenons
are enclosed in mortises in order that they may be better joined, and they
are transfixed with wooden pins. This timber is thirteen feet three palms
one digit long, and it projects beyond the first post a distance of two palms
and two digits, and to the same number of palms and digits beyond the
fourth post. It is two palms and as many digits wide, and also two palms
thick. As there are twelve posts it is necessary to have three timbers of this
kind.
On each of these timbers, and on each of the cross-beams which are laid
upon the shorter posts, are placed four planks, each nine feet long, two palms
three digits wide, and two palms one digit thick. The first plank is five feet
one palm one digit distant from the second, at the front as well as at the back. The third is at the
same distance from the fourth, but the second is one foot and three digits
distant from the third. In the same manner the rest of the eight planks are
arranged at intervals, the fifth from the sixth and the seventh from the eighth
are at the same distances as the first from the second and the third from the
fourth; the sixth is at the same distance from the seventh as the second
from the third.
Two planks support one transverse plank six feet long, one foot wide, one
palm thick, placed at a distance of three feet and two palms from the back
posts. When there are six of these supporting planks, on each separate one
are placed two bellows; the lower bellows-boards project a palm beyond
them. From each of the bellows-boards an iron ring descends through a hole
in its supporting plank, and a wooden peg is driven into the ring, so that the
bellows-board may remain stationary, as I stated above.
The two bellows communicate, each by its own plank, to the back of a
copper pipe in which are set both of the nozzles, and their ends are tightly
A—FRONT SILL. B—BACK SILL. C—FRONT POSTS. D—THEIR SLOTS. E—BEAM
IMPOSED UPON THEM. F—HIGHER POSTS. G—THEIR SLOTS. H—BEAM IMPOSED UPON
THEM. I—TIMBER JOINED IN THE MORTISES OF THE POSTS. K—PLANKS. L—TRANSVERSE
SUPPORTING PLANKS. M—THE HOLES IN THEM. N—PIPE. O—ITS FRONT END. P—ITS
REAR END.The pipe is made of a rolled copper or iron plate, a foot and
two palms and the same number of digits long; the plate is half a digit
thick, but a digit thick at the back. The interior of the pipe is three digits
wide, and two and a half digits high in the front, for it is not absolutely round;
and at the back it is a foot and two palms and three digits in diameter. The
plate from which the pipe is made is not entirely joined up, but at the front
there is left a crack half a digit wide, increasing at the back to three digits. This pipe is placed in the hole in the furnace, which, as I said, was in the
middle of the wall and the arch. The nozzles of the bellows, placed in this
pipe, are a distance of five digits from its front end.
The levers are of the same number as the bellows, and when depressed
by the cams of the long axle they compress the bellows. These levers
are eight feet three palms long, one palm wide and thick, and the ends are
inserted in the slots of the posts; they project beyond the front posts to a
distance of two palms, and the same distance beyond the back posts in order
that each may have its end depressed by its two cams on the axle. The
cams not only penetrate into the slots of the back posts, but project three
digits beyond them. An iron pin is set in round holes made through both
sides of the slot of each front post, at three palms and as many digits from the
bottom; the pin penetrates the lever, which turns about it when depressed
or raised. The back of the lever for the length of a cubit is a palm and a
digit wider than the rest, and is perforated; in this hole is engaged a bar
six feet and two palms long, three digits wide, and about one and one-half
digits thick; it is somewhat hooked at the upper end, and approaches the
handle of the bellows. Under the lever there is a nail, which penetrates
through a hole in the bar, so that the lever and bar may move together. The
bar is perforated in the upper end at a distance of six digits from the top;
this hole is two palms long and a digit wide, and in it is engaged the hook of
an iron implement which is a digit thick. At the upper part this implement
has either a round or square opening, like a link, and at the lower end is
hooked; the link is two digits high and wide and the hook is three digits long;
the middle part between the link and the hook is three palms and two
digits long. The link of this implement engages either the handle of the
bellows, or else a large ring which does engage it. This iron ring is a digit thick,
two palms wide on the inside of the upper part, and two digits in the
lower part, and this iron ring, not unlike the first one, engages the
handle of the bellows. The iron ring either has its narrower part turned
upward, and in it is engaged the ring of another iron implement, similar
to the first, whose hook, extending upward, grips the rope fastened to the
iron ring holding the end of the second lever, of which I will speak
presently; or else the iron ring grips this lever, and then in its hook is
engaged the ring of the other implement whose ring engages the handle of the
bellows, and in this case the rope is dispensed with.
Resting on beams fixed in the two walls is a longitudinal beam, at a
distance of four and a half feet from the back posts; it is two palms wide,
A—LEVER WHICH WHEN DEPRESSED BY MEANS OF A CAM COMPRESSES THE BELLOWS.
B—SLOTS THROUGH THE POSTS. C—BAR. D—IRON IMPLEMENT WITH A RECTANGULAR
LINK. E—IRON INSTRUMENT WITH ROUND RING. F—HANDLE OF BELLOWS. G—UPPER
POST. H—UPPER LEVER. I—BOX WITH EQUAL SIDES. K—BOX NARROW AT THE
BOTTOM. L—PEGS DRIVEN INTO THE UPPER LEVER.
one and a half palms thick. There are mortised into this longitudinal beam
the lower ends of upper posts three palms wide and two thick, which are six
feet two palms high, exclusive of their tenons. The upper ends of these
posts are mortised into an upper longitudinal beam, which lies close under
the rafters of the building; this upper longitudinal beam is two palms
wide and one thick. The upper posts have a slot cut out upward from a
point two feet from the bottom, and the slot is two feet high and six digits
wide. Through these upper posts a round hole is bored from one side to
the other at a point three feet one palm from the bottom, and a small iron axle
penetrates through the hole and is fastened there. Around this small iron
axle turns the second lever when it is depressed and raised. This lever is
eight feet long, and its other end is three digits wider than the rest of the
lever; at this widest point is a hole two digits wide and three high, in which
is fixed an iron ring, to which is tied the rope I have mentioned; it is five
palms long, its upper loop is two palms and as many digits wide, and the This half of the second lever, the end
of which I have just mentioned, is three palms high and one wide; it projects
three feet beyond the slot of the post on which it turns; the other end, which
faces the back wall of the furnaces, is one foot and a palm high and a foot wide.
On this part of the lever stands and is fixed a box three and a half feet
long, one foot and one palm wide, and half a foot deep; but these measure
ments vary; sometimes the bottom of this box is narrower, sometimes
equal in width to the top. In either case, it is filled with stones and earth
to make it heavy, but the smelters have to be on their guard and
make provision against the stones falling out, owing to the constant
motion; this is prevented by means of an iron band which is placed over
the top, both ends being wedge-shaped and driven into the lever so that the
stones can be held in. Some people, in place of the box, drive four or more
pegs into the lever and put mud between them, the required amount being
added to the weight or taken away from it.
There remains to be considered the method of using this machine.
The
lower lever, being depressed by the cams, compresses the bellows, and the
compression drives the air through the nozzle. Then the weight of the box
on the other end of the upper lever raises the upper bellows-board, and the
air is drawn in, entering through the air-hole.
The machine whose cams depress the lower lever is made as follows.
First there is an axle, on whose end outside the building is a water-wheel;
at the other end, which is inside the building, is a drum made of rundles. This drum is composed of two double hubs, a foot apart, which are five digits
thick, the radius all round being a foot and two digits; but they are double,
because each hub is composed of two discs, equally thick, fastened together
with wooden pegs glued in. These hubs are sometimes covered above and
around by iron plates. The rundles are thirty in number, a foot and two
palms and the same number of digits long, with each end fastened into a hub;
they are rounded, three digits in diameter, and the same number of digits
apart. In this practical manner is made the drum composed of rundles.
There is a toothed wheel, two palms and a digit thick, on the end
of another axle; this wheel is composed of a double discThe inner disc
is composed of four segments a palm thick, everywhere two palms and a
digit wide. The outer disc, like the inner, is made of four segments, and is
a palm and a digit thick; it is not equally wide, but where the head of the
spokes are inserted it is a foot and a palm and digit wide, while on each side
of the spokes it becomes a little narrower, until the narrowest part is only
two palms and the same number of digits wide. The outer segments are joined
to the inner ones in such a manner that, on the one hand, an outer segment
ends in the middle of an inner one, and, on the other hand, the ends of the
inner segments are joined in the middle of the outer ones; there is no doubt
that by this kind of joining the wheel is made stronger. The outer segments
are fastened to the inner by means of a large number of wooden pegs. Each
A—AXLE. B—WATER-WHEEL. C—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. D—OTHER AXLE.
E—TOOTHED WHEEL. F—ITS SPOKES. G—ITS SEGMENTS. H—ITS TEETH. I—CAMS
OF THE AXLE.
segment, measured over its round back, is four feet and three palms long. There are four spokes, each two palms wide and a palm and a digit thick; their
length, excluding the tenons, being two feet and three digits. One end of the
spoke is mortised into the axle, where it is firmly fastened with pegs; the
wide part of the other end, in the shape of a triangle, is mortised into the
outer segment opposite it, keeping the shape of the same as far as the segment
ascends. They also are joined together with wooden pegs glued in, and these
pegs are driven into the spokes under the inner disc. The parts of the spokes
in the shape of the triangle are on the inside; the outer part is simple. This
triangle has two sides equal, the erect ones as is evident, which are a palm
long; the lower side is not of the same length, but is five digits long, and a
mortise of the same shape is cut out of the segments. The wheel has sixty
teeth, since it is necessary that the rundle drum should revolve twice while
the toothed wheel revolves once. The teeth are a foot long, and project one
palm from the inner disc of the wheel, and three digits from the outer disc;
that they should be three digits apart, as were the rundles.
The axle should have a thickness in proportion to the spokes and the
segments. As it has two cams to depress each of the levers, it is necessary that
it should have twenty-four cams, which project beyond it a foot and a palm and
a digit. The cams are of almost semicircular shape, of which the widest part is
three palms and a digit wide, and they are a palm thick; they are
distributed according to the four sides of the axle, on the upper, the lower
and the two lateral sides. The axle has twelve holes, of which the first
penetrates through from the upper side to the lower, the second from one
lateral side to the other; the first hole is four feet two palms distant from
the second; each alternate one of these holes is made in the same direc
tion, and they are arranged at equal intervals. Each single cam must
be opposite another; the first is inserted into the upper part of the first
hole, the second into the lower part of the same hole, and so fixed by
pegs that they do not fall out; the third cam is inserted into that part
of the second hole which is on the right side, and the fourth into that
part on the left. In like manner all the cams are inserted into the consecutive
holes, for which reason it happens that the cams depress the levers of the
A—CHARCOAL. B—MORTAR-BOX. C—STAMPS.
Finally we must not omit to state that this is only one
of many such axles having cams and a water-wheel.
I have arrived thus far with many words, and yet it is not unseasonable
that I have in this place pursued the subject minutely, since the smelting of all
the metals, to which I am about to proceed, could not be undertaken without
it.
The ores of gold, silver, copper, and lead, are smelted in a furnace by
four different methods. The first method is for the rich ores of gold or silver,
the second for the mediocre ores, the third for the poor ores, and the fourth
method is for those ores which contain copper or lead, whether they contain
precious metals or are wanting in them. The smelting of the first ores is
performed in the furnace of which the tap-hole is intermittently closed; the
other three ores are melted in furnaces of which the tap-holes are always
open.
First, I will speak of the manner in which the furnaces are prepared for
the smelting of the ores, and of the first method of smelting. The powder
from which the hearth and forehearth should be made is composed of char
coal and earth (clay?). The charcoal is crushed by the stamps in a mortar
box, the front of which is closed by a board at the top, while the charcoal,
A—TUB. B—SIEVE. C—RODS. D—BENCH-FRAME.
not shod with iron, but are made entirely of wood, although at the lower
part they are bound round at the wide part by an iron band.
The powder into which the charcoal is crushed is thrown on to a sieve
whose bottom consists of interwoven withes of wood. The sieve is drawn
backward and forward over two wooden or iron rods placed in a triangular
position on a tub, or over a bench-frame set on the floor of the building;
the powder which falls into the tub or on to the floor is of suitable size,
but the pieces of small charcoal which remain in the sieve are emptied out
and thrown back under the stamps.
When the earth is dug up it is first exposed to the sun that it may dry.
Later on it is thrown with a shovel on to a screen—set up obliquely and
supported by poles,—made of thick, loosely woven hazel withes, and in this
way the fine earth and its small lumps pass through the holes of the screen, but
the clods and stones do not pass through, but run down to the ground. The
earth which passes through the screen is conveyed in a two-wheeled cart to
the works and there sifted. This sieve, which is not dissimilar to the one
A—SCREEN. B—POLES. C—SHOVEL. D—TWO-WHEELED CART. E—HAND-SIEVE.
F—NARROW BOARDS. G—BOX. H—COVERED PIT.
equal length placed over a long box; the powder which falls through the
sieve into the box is suitable for the mixture; the lumps that remain in the
sieve are thrown away by some people, but by others they are placed under
the stamps. This powdered earth is mixed with powdered charcoal, moist
ened, and thrown into a pit, and in order that it may remain good for a long
time, the pit is covered up with boards so that the mixture may not
become contaminated.
They take two parts of pulverised charcoal and one part of powdered
earth, and mix them well together with a rake; the mixture is moistened by
pouring water over it so that it may easily be made into shapes resembling
snowballs; if the powder be light it is moistened with more water, if heavy
with less. The interior of the new furnace is lined with lute, so that the
cracks in the walls, if there are any, may be filled up, but especially in order
to preserve the rock from injury by fire. In old furnaces in which ore has
been melted, as soon as the rocks have cooled the assistant chips away, with
a spatula, the accretions which adhere to the walls, and then breaks them
up with an iron hoe or a rake with five teeth. The cracks of the furnace are
first filled in with fragments of rock or brick, which he does by passing his
hand into the furnace through its mouth, or else, having placed a ladder against
it, he mounts by the rungs to the upper open part of the furnace. To the
upper part of the ladder a board is fastened that he may lean and recline
against it. Then standing on the same ladder, with a wooden spatula, he
smears the furnace walls over with lute; this spatula is four feet long, a digit
thick, and for a foot upward from the bottom it is a palm wide, or even
wider, generally two and a half digits. He spreads the lute equally over the
inner walls of the furnace. The mouth of the copper pipe
trude from the lute, lest sows
melting, for the furnace bellows could not force a blast through them. Then
the same assistant throws a little powdered charcoal into the pit of the fore
hearth and sprinkles it with pulverised earth. Afterward, with a bucket
he pours water into it and sweeps this all over the forehearth pit, and with the
broom drives the turbid water into the furnace hearth and likewise sweeps
it out. Next he throws the mixed and moistened powder into the furnace,
and then a second time mounting the steps of the ladder, he introduces the
rammer into the furnace and pounds the powder so that the hearth is made
solid. The rammer is rounded and three palms long; at the bottom it is five
digits in diameter, at the top three and a half, therefore it is made in the form
of a truncated cone; the handle of the rammer is round and five feet long and
A—FURNACE. B—LADDER. C—BOARD FIXED TO IT. D—HOE. E—FIVE
TOOTHED RAKE. F—WOODEN SPATULA. G—BROOM. H—RAMMER. I—RAMMER, SAME
DIAMETER. K—TWO WOODEN SPATULAS. L—CURVED BLADE. M—BRONZE RAMMER.
N—ANOTHER BRONZE RAMMER. O—WIDE SPATULA. P—ROD. Q—WICKER BASKET.
R—TWO BUCKETS OF LEATHER IN WHICH WATER IS CARRIED FOR PUTTING OUT A CON
FLAGRATION, SHOULD THE
IS SQUIRTED OUT. T—TWO HOOKS. V—RAKE. X—WORKMAN BEATING THE CLAY WITH
AN IRON IMPLEMENT.
two and a half digits thick; the upper part of the rammer, where the handle
is inserted, is bound with an iron band two digits wide. There are some who,
instead, use two rounded rammers three and a half digits in diameter, the
same at the bottom as at the top. Some people prefer two wooden
spatulas, or a rammer spatula.
In a similar manner, mixed and moistened powder is thrown and pounded
with a rammer in the forehearth pit, which is outside the furnace. When
this is nearly completed, powder is again put in, and pushed with the rammer
up toward the protruding copper pipe, so that from a point a digit under the
mouth of the copper pipe the hearth slopes down into the crucible of the fore
hearth,The same is repeated until the
blade; this blade is of iron, two palms and as many digits long, three digits
wide, blunt at the top and sharp at the bottom. The crucible of the fore
hearth must be round, a foot in diameter and two palms deep if it has to
contain a
in diameter and two palms deep like the other. When the forehearth has
been hollowed out it is pounded with a round bronze rammer. This is
five digits high and the same in diameter, having a curved round handle
one and a half digits thick; or else another bronze rammer is used, which
is fashioned in the shape of a cone, truncated at the top, on which is
imposed another cut away at the bottom, so that the middle part of the
rammer may be grasped by the hand; this is six digits high, and five digits
in diameter at the lower end and four at the top. Some use in its place a
wooden spatula two and a half palms wide at the lower end and one palm
thick.
The assistant, having prepared the forehearth, returns to the furnace and
besmears both sides as well as the top of the mouth with simple lute. In the
lower part of the mouth he places lute that has been dipped in charcoal
dust, to guard against the risk of the lute attracting to itself the powder
of the hearth and vitiating it. Next he lays in the mouth of the furnace a
straight round rod three quarters of a foot long and three digits in diameter. Afterward he places a piece of charcoal on the lute, of the same length and
width as the mouth, so that it is entirely closed up; if there be not at hand
one piece of charcoal so large, he takes two instead. When the mouth is thus
closed up, he throws into the furnace a wicker basket full of charcoal, and in
order that the piece of charcoal with which the mouth of the furnace is closed
should not then fall out, the master holds it in with his hand. The pieces
of charcoal which are thrown into the furnace should be of medium size, for
if they are large they impede the blast of the bellows and prevent it from
blowing through the tap-hole of the furnace into the forehearth to heat it. Then the master covers over the charcoal, placed at the mouth of the furnace,
with lute and extracts the wooden rod, and thus the furnace is prepared. Afterward the assistant throws four or five larger baskets full of charcoal
into the furnace, filling it right up; he also throws a little charcoal
into the forehearth, and places glowing coals upon it in order that it may
be kindled, but in order that the flames of this fire should not enter through
the tap-hole of the furnace and fire the charcoal inside, he covers the tap-hole
with lute or closes it with fragments of pottery. Some do not warm the
forehearth the same evening, but place large charcoals round the edge of it, one
leaning on the other; those who follow the first method sweep out the
forehearth in the morning, and clean out the little pieces of charcoal and
cinders, while those who follow the latter method take, early in the morning,
burning firebrands, which have been prepared by the watchman of the works,
and place them on the charcoal.
At the fourth hour the master begins his work.
He first inserts a
small piece of glowing coal into the furnace, through the bronze nozzle-pipe
of half an hour the forehearth, as well as the hearth, becomes warmed, and
of course more quickly if on the preceding day ores have been smelted in the
same furnace, but if not then it warms more slowly. If the hearth and
forehearth are not warmed before the ore to be smelted is thrown in, the furnace
is injured and the metals lost; or if the powder from which both are made
is damp in summer or frozen in winter, they will be cracked, and, giving
out a sound like thunder, they will blow out the metals and other substances
with great peril to the workmen. After the furnace has been warmed, the
master throws in slags, and these, when melted, flow out through the tap
hole into the forehearth. Then he closes up the tap-hole at once with
mixed lute and charcoal dust; this plug he fastens with his hand to a
round wooden rammer that is five digits thick, two palms high, with a handle
three feet long. The smelter extracts the slags from the forehearth with a
hooked bar; if the ore to be smelted is rich in gold or silver he puts into the
forehearth a
because the former requires much lead, the latter little; he immediately
throws burning firebrands on to the lead so that it melts. Afterward he
performs everything according to the usual manner and order, whereby he
first throws into the furnace as many cakes melted from pyrites
requires to smelt the ore; then he puts in two wicker baskets full of ore
with litharge and hearth-lead
second order, all mixed together; then one wicker basket full of charcoal,
and lastly the slags. The furnace now being filled with all the things I
have mentioned, the ore is slowly smelted; he does not put too much of it
against the back wall of the furnace, lest sows should form around the nozzles
of the bellows and the blast be impeded and the fire burn less fiercely.
This, indeed, is the custom of many most excellent smelters, who know
how to govern the four elementsThey combine in right proportion the
ores, which are part earth, placing no more than is suitable in the furnaces;
they pour in the needful quantity of water; they moderate with skill the air
from the bellows; they throw the ore into that part of the fire which burns
fiercely. The master sprinkles water into each part of the furnace to dampen
the charcoal slightly, so that the minute parts of ore may adhere to it,
which otherwise the blast of the bellows and the force of the fire would agitate
and blow away with the fumes. But as the nature of the ores to be smelted
varies, the smelters have to arrange the hearth now high, now low, and to
place the pipe in which the nozzles of the bellows are inserted sometimes on a
great and sometimes at a slight angle, so that the blast of the bellows may For those ores
which heat and fuse easily, a low hearth is necessary for the work of the
smelters, and the pipe must be placed at a gentle angle to produce a mild
blast from the bellows. On the contrary, those ores that heat and fuse
slowly must have a high hearth, and the pipe must be placed at a steep incline
in order to blow a strong blast of the bellows, and it is necessary, for this
kind of ore, to have a very hot furnace in which slags, or cakes melted from
pyrites, or stones which melt easily in the fire
ore should not settle in the hearth of the furnace and obstruct and choke up
the tap-hole, as the minute metallic particles that have been washed from
the ores are wont to do. Large bellows have wide nozzles, for if they were
narrow the copious and strong blast would be too much compressed and too
acutely blown into the furnace, and then the melted material would be
chilled, and would form sows around the nozzle, and thus obstruct the opening
into the furnace, which would cause great damage to the proprietors'
property. If the ores agglomerate and do not fuse, the smelter, mounting
on the ladder placed against the side of the furnace, divides the charge with
a pointed or hooked bar, which he also pushes down into the pipe in
dislodges the ore and the sows from around it.
After a quarter of an hour, when the lead which the assistant has placed
in the forehearth is melted, the master opens the tap-hole of the furnace
with a tapping-bar. This bar is made of iron, is three and a half feet long,
the forward end pointed and a little curved, and the back end hollow so that
into it may be inserted a wooden handle, which is three feet long and thick
enough to be well grasped by the hand. The slag first flows from the furnace
into the forehearth, and in it are stones mixed with metal or with the metal
adhering to them partly altered, the slag also containing earth and solidified
juices. After this the material from the melted pyrites flows out, and then the
molten lead contained in the forehearth absorbs the gold and silver. When
that which has run out has stood for some time in the forehearth, in order
to be able to separate one from the other, the master first either skims off
the slags with the hooked bar or else lifts them off with an iron fork; the
slags, as they are very light, float on the top. He next draws off the cakes of
melted pyrites, which as they are of medium weight hold the middle place;
he leaves in the forehearth the alloy of gold or silver with the lead, for these
being the heaviest, sink to the bottom. As, however, there is a difference
lowest much, he puts these away separately, each in its own place, in
order that to each heap, when it is re-smelted, he may add the proper
fluxes, and can put in as much lead as is demanded for the metal in the
slag; when the slag is re-melted, if it emits much odour, there is some
metal in it; if it emits no odour, then it contains none. He puts the cakes
of melted pyrites away separately, as they were nearest in the forehearth to
the metal, and contain a little more of it than the slags; from all these
cakes a conical mound is built up, by always placing the widest of them
at the bottom. The hooked bar has a hook on the end, hence its name;
otherwise it is similar to other bars.
Afterward the master closes up the tap-hole and fills the furnace with
the same materials I described above, and again, the ores having been melted,
he opens the tap-hole, and with a hooked bar extracts the slags and the cakes
melted from pyrites, which have run down into the forehearth. He repeats
the same operation until a certain and definite part of the ore has been
smelted, and the day's work is at an end; if the ore was rich the work is
finished in eight hours; if poor, it takes a longer time. But if the ore was
so rich as to be smelted in less than eight hours, another operation is in the
meanwhile combined with the first, and both are performed in the space of ten
hours. When all the ore has been smelted, he throws into the furnace a
basket full of litharge or hearth-lead, so that the metal which has remained
in the accretions may run out with these when melted. When he has finally
drawn out of the forehearth the slags and the cakes melted from pyrites,
he takes out, with a ladle, the lead alloyed with gold or silver and pours it into
little iron or copper pans, three palms wide and as many digits deep, but
first lined on the inside with lute and dried by warming, lest the glowing molten
substances should break through. The iron ladle is two palms wide, and in
other respects it is similar to the others, all of which have a sufficiently long
iron shaft, so that the fire should not burn the wooden part of the handle. When the alloy has been poured out of the forehearth, the smelter foreman
and the mine captain weigh the cakes.
Then the master breaks out the whole of the mouth of the furnace with a
crowbar, and with that other hooked bar, the rabble and the five-toothed rake,
he extracts the accretions and the charcoal. This crowbar is not unlike
the other hooked one, but larger and wider; the handle of the rabble is six feet
long and is half of iron and half of wood. The furnace having cooled, the
master chips off the accretions clinging to the walls with a rectangular
spatula six digits long, a palm broad, and sharp on the front edge; it has
a round handle four feet long, half of it being of iron and half of wood. This
is the first method of smelting ores.
Because they generally consist of unequal constituents, some of which melt
rapidly and others slowly, the ores rich in gold and silver cannot be smelted as
rapidly or as easily by the other methods as they can by the first method, for
three important reasons. The first reason is that, as often as the closed
tap-hole of the furnace is opened with a tapping-bar, so often can the
A, B, C—THREE FURNACES. AT THE FIRST STANDS THE SMELTER, WHO WITH A LADLE
POURS THE ALLOY OUT OF THE FOREHEARTH INTO THE MOULDS. D—FOREHEARTH.
E—LADLE. F—MOULDS. G—ROUND WOODEN RAMMER. H—TAPPING-BAR. AT THE
SECOND FURNACE STANDS THE SMELTER. WHO OPENS THE TAP-HOLE WITH HIS TAPPING-BAR.
whether it is flaming in scattered bits, and not uniting in one mass; in the
first case the ore is smelting too slowly and not without great expense; in
the second case the metal mixes with the slag which flows out of the
furnace into the forehearth, wherefore there is the expense of melting it again;
in the third case, the metal is consumed by the violence of the fire. Each of
these evils has its remedy; if the ore melts slowly or does not come together,
it is necessary to add some amount of fluxes which melt the ore; or if they
melt too readily, to decrease the amount.
The second reason is that each time that the furnace is opened with a
tapping-bar, it flows out into the forehearth, and the smelter is able to test
the alloy of gold and lead or of silver with lead, which is called When the tap-hole is opened the second or third time, this test shows us
whether the alloy of gold or silver has become richer, or whether the lead is
too debilitated and wanting in strength to absorb any more gold or silver. If
it has become richer, some portion of lead added to it should renew its
strength; if it has not become richer, it is poured out of the forehearth that
it may be replaced with fresh lead.
The third reason is that if the tap-hole of the furnace is always open
when the ore and other things are being smelted, the fluxes, which are easily
melted, run out of the furnace before the rich gold and silver ores, for these
are sometimes of a kind that oppose and resist melting by the fire for a longer
period. It follows in this case, that some part of the ore is either con
sumed or is mixed with the accretions, and as a result little lumps of ore
not yet melted are now and then found in the accretions. Therefore when
these ores are being smelted, the tap-hole of the furnace should be closed
for a time, as it is necessary to heat and mix the ore and the fluxes at the
same time; since the fluxes fuse more rapidly than the ore, when the
molten fluxes are held in the furnace, they thus melt the ore which does not
readily fuse or mix with the lead. The lead absorbs the gold or silver, just
as tin or lead when melted in the forehearth absorbs the other unmelted
metal which has been thrown into it. But if the molten matter is poured
upon that which is not molten, it runs off on all sides and consequently does
not melt it. It follows from all this that ores rich in gold or silver, when put
into a furnace with its tap-hole always open, cannot for that reason be smelted
so successfully as in one where the tap-hole is closed for a time, so that during
this time the ore may be melted by the molten fluxes. Afterward, when the
tap-hole has been opened, they flow into the forehearth and mix there with
the molten lead. This method of smelting the ores is used by us and by the
Bohemians.
The three remaining methods of smelting ores are similar to each other
in that the tap-holes of the furnaces always remain open, so that the molten
metals may continually run out. They differ greatly from each other,
A, B—TWO FURNACES. C—FOREHEARTHS. D—DIPPING-POT. THE SMELTER STANDING
BY THE FIRST FURNACE DRAWS OFF THE SLAGS WITH A HOOKED BAR. E—HOOKED BAR.
F—SLAGS. G—THE ASSISTANT DRAWING A BUCKET OF WATER WHICH HE POURS OVER THE
GLOWING SLAGS TO QUENCH THEM. H—BASKET MADE OF TWIGS OF WOOD INTERTWINED.
I—RABBLE. K—ORE TO BE SMELTED. THE MASTER STANDS AT THE OTHER FURNACE
narrower than that of the third, and besides it is invisible and concealed. It easily discharges into the forehearth, which is one and a half feet higher
than the floor of the building, in order that below it to the left a dipping-pot
can be made. When the forehearth is nearly full of the slags, which well up
from the invisible tap-hole of the furnace, they are skimmed off from the top
with a hooked bar; then the alloy of gold or silver with lead and the melted
pyrites, being uncovered, flow into the dipping-pot, and the latter are made into
cakes; these cakes are broken and thrown back into the furnace so that all
their metal may be smelted out. The alloy is poured into little iron moulds.
The smelter, besides lead and cognate things, uses fluxes which combine
with the ore, of which I gave a sufficient account in Book VII. The metals
which are melted from ores that fuse readily in the fire, are profitable because
they are smelted in a short time, while those which are difficult to fuse are
not as profitable, because they take a long time. When fluxes remain in the
furnace and do not melt, they are not suitable; for this reason, accretions and
slags are the most convenient for smelting, because they melt quickly. It is
necessary to have an industrious and experienced smelter, who in the first
place takes care not to put into the furnace more ores mixed with fluxes than
it can accommodate.
The powder out of which this furnace hearth and the adjoining fore
hearth and the dipping-pot are usually made, consists mostly of equal pro
portions of charcoal dust and of earth, or of equal parts of the same and of
ashes. When the hearth of the furnace is prepared, a rod that will reach to the
forehearth is put into it, higher up if the ore to be smelted readily fuses, and
lower down if it fuses with difficulty. When the dipping-pot and forehearth
are finished, the rod is drawn out of the furnace so that the tap-hole is open,
and through it the molten material flows continuously into the forehearth,
which should be very near the furnace in order that it may keep very hot and
the alloy thus be made purer. If the ore to be smelted does not melt easily, the
hearth of the furnace must not be made too sloping, lest the molten fluxes
should run down into the forehearth before the ore is smelted, and the metal
thus remain in the accretions on the sides of the furnace. The smelter must
not ram the hearth so much that it becomes too hard, nor make the mistake
of ramming the lower part of the mouth to make it hard, for it could not
breatheThe ore which does not readily melt is thrown as much as possible to the
back of the furnace, and toward that part where the fire burns very
fiercely, so that it may be smelted longer. In this way the smelter may direct
it whither he wills. Only when it glows at the part near the bellows' nozzle
does it signify that all the ore is smelted which has been thrown to the side of
the furnace in which the nozzles are placed. If the ore is easily melted, one
or two wicker baskets full are thrown into the front part of the furnace so that
the fire, being driven back by it, may also smelt the ore and the sows that
A, B—TWO FURNACES. C—FOREHEARTH. D—DIPPING-POTS. THE MASTER STANDS AT
THE ONE FURNACE AND DRAWS AWAY THE SLAGS WITH AN IRON FORK. E—IRON FORK.
F—WOODEN HOE WITH WHICH THE CAKES OF MELTED PYRITES ARE DRAWN OUT. G—THE
FOREHEARTH CRUCIBLE: ONE-HALF INSIDE IS TO BE SEEN OPEN IN THE OTHER FURNACE.
H—THE HThis process of smelting is very
ancient among the Tyrolese
The second method of smelting ores stands in a measure midway between
that one performed in a furnace of which the tap-hole is closed intermittently,
and the first of the methods performed in a furnace where the tap-hole is
always open. In this manner are smelted the ores of gold and silver that are
neither very rich nor very poor, but mediocre, which fuse easily and are
readily absorbed by the lead. It was found that in this way a large quantity
of ore could be smelted at one operation without much labour or great expense,
and could thus be alloyed with lead. This furnace has two crucibles, one of
which is half inside the furnace and half outside, so that the lead being put
into this crucible, the part of the lead which is in the furnace absorbs
the metals of the ores which easily fuse; the other crucible is lower, and
the alloy and the molten pyrites run into it. Those who make use of this
method of smelting, tap the alloy of gold or silver with lead from the upper
crucible once or twice if need be, and throw in other lead or litharge, and
each absorbs that flux which is nearest. This method of smelting is in use
in Styria
The furnace in the third method of smelting ores has the tap-hole like
wise open, but the furnace is higher and wider than the others, and its bellows
are larger; for these reasons a larger charge of the ore can be thrown into
it. When the mines yield a great abundance of ore for the smelter, they
smelt in the same furnace continuously for three days and three nights,
providing there be no defect either in the hearth or in the forehearth. In this
kind of a furnace almost every kind of accretion will be found. The fore
hearth of the furnace is not unlike the forehearth of the first furnace of all,
except that it has a tap-hole. However, because large charges of ore
are smelted uninterruptedly, and the melted material runs out and the slags
are skimmed off, there is need for a second forehearth crucible, into which the
molten material runs through an opened tap-hole when the first is full. When
a smelter has spent twelve hours' labour on this work, another always takes his
place. The ores of copper and lead and the poorest ores of gold and silver
are smelted by this method, because they cannot be smelted by the other
three methods on account of the greater expense occasioned. Yet by this
method a
gold, or only a half to one
is a large amount of ore in each charge, smelting is continuous, and without
expensive fluxes such as lead, litharge, and hearth-lead. In this method
of smelting we must use only cupriferous pyrites which easily melt in the
fire, in truth the cakes melted out from this, if they no longer absorb
A, B—TWO FURNACES. C—TAP-HOLES OF FURNACES. D—FOREHEARTHS. E—THEIR
TAP-HOLES. F—DIPPING-POTS. G—AT THE ONE FURNACE STANDS THE SMELTER CARRYING
A WICKER BASKET FULL OF CHARCOAL. AT THE OTHER FURNACE STANDS A SMELTER WHO
WITH THE THIRD HOOKED BAR BREAKS AWAY THE MATERIAL WHICH HAS FROZEN THE TAP
HOLE OF THE FURNACE. H—HOOKED BAR. I—HEAP OF CHARCOAL. K—BARROW ON If
from this poor ore, with melted pyrites alone, material for cakes cannot
be made, there are added other fluxes which have not previously been
melted. These fluxes are, namely, lead ore, stones easily fused by fire
of the second order and sand made from them, limestone,
schist, and iron stone
Although this method of smelting ores is rough and might not seem to
be of great use, yet it is clever and useful; for a great weight of ores, in
which the gold, silver, or copper are in small quantities, may be reduced into
a few cakes containing all the metal. If on being first melted they are too
crude to be suitable for the second melting, in which the lead absorbs the
precious metals that are in the cakes, or in which the copper is melted out of
them, yet they can be made suitable if they are repeatedly roasted, some
times as often as seven or eight times, as I have explained in the last book. Smelters of this kind are so clever and expert, that in smelting they take out
all the gold and silver which the assayer in assaying the ores has stated to be
contained in them, because if during the first operation, when he makes the
cakes, there is a
the smelter obtains it from the slags by the second smelting. This method of
smelting ores is old and very common to most of those who use other methods.
Although lead ores are usually smelted in the third furnace—whose tap
hole is always open,—yet not a few people melt them in special furnaces by a
method which I will briefly explain. The
and afterward break and crush them with large round mallets. Between
the two low walls of a hearth, which is inside a furnace made of and vaulted
with a rock that resists injury by the fire and does not burn into chalk, they
place green wood with a layer of dry wood on the top of it; then they throw
the ore on to this, and when the wood is kindled the lead drips down and
runs on to the underlying sloping hearthThis hearth is made of pulverised
furnace and the other half outside it, into which runs the lead. The
smelter, having first skimmed off the slags and other things with a hoc, pours
the lead with a ladle into moulds, taking out the cakes after they have
cooled. At the back of the furnace is a rectangular hole, so that the fire
may be allowed more draught, and so that the smelter can crawl through it
into the furnace if necessity demands.
The Saxons who inhabit Gittelde, when smelting lead ore in a furnace
not unlike a baking oven, put the wood in through a hole at the back of the
furnace, and when it begins to burn vigorously the lead trickles out of the
ore into a forehearth. When this is full, the smelting being accomplished,
the tap-hole is opened with a bar, and in this way the lead, together with the
slags, runs into the dipping-pots below. Afterward the cakes of lead, when
they are cold, are taken from the moulds.
In Westphalia they heap up ten wagon-loads of charcoal on some hill
side which adjoins a level place, and the top of the heap being made flat,
straw is thrown upon it to the thickness of three or four digits. On the top of
kindled, and when the wind blows, it fans the fire so that the ore is smelted. In this wise the lead, trickling down from the heap, flows on to the level and
forms broad thin slabs. A few hundred pounds of lead ore are kept at hand,
which, if things go well, are scattered over the heap. These broad slabs are
impure and are laid upon dry wood which in turn is placed on green wood
laid over a large crucible, and the former having been kindled, the lead is
re-melted.
The Poles use a hearth of bricks four feet high, sloping on both sides and
plastered with lute. On the upper level part of the hearth large pieces of
wood are piled, and on these is placed small wood with lute put in between;
over the top are laid wood shavings, and upon these again pure lead ore
covered with large pieces of wood. When these are kindled, the ore melts and
A—FURNACE OF THE CARNI. B—LOW WALL. C—WOOD. D—ORE DRIPPING LEAD.
E—LARGE CRUCIBLE. F—MOULDS. G—LADLE. H—SLABS OF LEAD. I—RECTANGULAR
HOLE AT THE BACK OF THE FURNACE. K—SAXON FURNACE. L—OPENING IN THE BACK
OF THE FURNACE. M—WOOD. N—UPPER CRUCIBLE. O—DIPPING-POT. P—WESTPHALIAN
METHOD OF MELTING. Q—HEAPS OF CHARCOAL. R—STRAW. S—WIDE SLABS.
the fire, the metal is collected. If necessity demand, it is melted over and
over again in the same manner, but it is finally melted by means of wood
laid over the large crucible, the slabs of lead being placed upon it.
The concentrates from washing are smelted together with slags (fluxes?)
in a third furnace, of which the tap-hole is always open.
It is worth while to build vaulted dust-chambers over the furnaces,
especially over those in which the precious ores are to be smelted, in order
that the thicker part of the fumes, in which metals are not wanting, may be
caught and saved. In this way two or more furnaces are combined under the
same vaulted ceiling, which is supported by the wall, against which the
furnaces are built, and by four columns. Under this the smelters of the
ore perform their work. There are two openings through which the fumes
rise from the furnaces into the wide vaulted chamber, and the wider this is the
more fumes it collects; in the middle of this chamber over the arch is an opening
three palms high and two wide. This catches the fumes of both furnaces,
which have risen up from both sides of the vaulted chamber to its arch, and
have fallen again because they could not force their way out; and they thus
pass out through the opening mentioned, into the chimney which the Greeks
call The chimney has
thin iron plates fastened into the walls, to which the thinner metallic sub
stances adhere when ascending with the fumes. The thicker metallic
substances, or
harden into stalactites. On one side of the chamber is a window in which
are set panes of glass, so that the light may be transmitted, but the fumes
kept in; on the other side is a door, which is kept entirely closed while the
ores are being smelted in the furnaces, so that none of the fumes may escape. It is opened in order that the workman, passing through it, may be enabled
to enter the chamber and remove the soot and
A—FURNACES. B—VAULTED ROOF. C—COLUMNS. D—DUST-CHAMBER. E—OPENING.
F—CHIMNEY. G—WINDOW. H—DOOR. I—CHUTE.The soot mixed with
a long chute made of four boards joined in the shape of a rectangle,
that they should not fly away. They fall on to the floor, and are sprinkled
with salt water, and are again smelted with ore and litharge, and become
an emolument to the proprietors. Such chambers, which catch the metallic
substances that rise with the fumes, are profitable for all metalliferous
ores; but especially for the minute metallic particles collected by washing
crushed ores and rock, because these usually fly out with the fire of the
furnaces.
I have explained the four general methods of smelting ores; now I
will state how the ores of each metal are smelted, or how the metal is obtained
from the ore. I will begin with gold.
Its sand, the concentrates from
washing, or the gold dust collected in any other manner, should very often
not be smelted, but should be mixed with quicksilver and washed with tepid
water, so that all the impurities may be eliminated. This method I ex
plained in Book VII. Or they are placed in the
gold from silver, for this also separates its impurities. In this method we
see the gold sink in the glass ampulla, and after all the
from the particles, it frequently remains as a gold-coloured residue at the
bottom; this powder, when it has been moistened with oil made from
argol
or with saltpetre and salt; or the same very fine dust is thrown into molten
silver, which absorbs it, and from this it is again parted by
It is necessary to smelt gold ore either outside the blast furnace in a
crucible, or inside the blast furnace; in the former case a small charge of ore
is used, in the latter a large charge of it.
it is, is crushed with a
slow fire for three hours, then the alloy is put into molten silver that it
may melt more rapidly. Or a
mixed together with half a
into a crucible with half an
melt, then a sixth part of granulated lead is thrown into the same crucible. As soon as the mixture emits an odour, iron-filings are added to it, or if these
are not at hand, iron hammer-scales, for both of these break the strength of
the When the fire consumes it, not alone with it is some strength
of the
be mixed with the goldWhen the button has been taken out of the
crucible and cooled, it is melted in a cupel, first until the antimony is exhaled,
and thereafter until the lead is separated from it.
Crushed pyrites which contains gold is smelted in the same way; it
and the
made from them in a number of different waysOne part of crushed
material is mixed with six parts of copper, one part of sulphur, half a part of
salt, and they are all placed in a pot and over them is poured wine distilled
by heating liquid argol in an ampulla. The pot is covered and smeared
over with lute and is put in a hot place, so that the mixture moistened with
wine may dry for the space of six days, then it is heated for three hours over
a gentle fire that it may combine more rapidly with the lead. Finally it is put
into a cupel and the gold is separated from the lead
Or else one
to which gold adheres, is mixed with half a
a third of a The crucible into which these are put, after it has been
covered with a lid, is sealed with lute and placed in a small furnace that is
provided with small holes through which the air is drawn in, and then it is
heated until it turns red and the substances put in have alloyed; this should
take place within four or five hours. The alloy having cooled, it is again
crushed to powder and a pound of litharge is added to it; then it is heated
again in another crucible until it melts. The button is taken out, purged of
slag, and placed in a cupel, where the gold is separated from the lead.
Or to a
concentrates, is added a
glass-galls, and it is heated until it melts. When cooled and crushed, it is washed,
then to it is added a
and it is likewise heated again until it melts. After the button has been
purged of slag, it is put into the cupel, and the gold and silver are separated
from the lead; the gold is parted from the silver with Or else
a
a quarter of a
which fuses ores, are heated until they melt. The mixture when cooled is again
reduced to powder, roasted and washed, and in this manner a blue powder is
obtained. Of this, and silver, and that second powder which fuses ores, a
button is treated as before. Or else a
such metalliferous concentrates, half a The alloy when cooled is again
crushed to powder, one
silver. Or else a
together with a
salt made from argol, and a third of a
with sulphur, are heated until they melt. Afterward the lead is re-melted,
and the gold is separated from the other metals. Or else a
powder of this kind of concentrates, together with two
gold is melted out. By these and similar methods concentrates containing
gold, if there be a small quantity of them or if they are very rich, can be
smelted outside the blast furnace.
If there be much of them and they are poor, then they are smelted in the
blast furnace, especially the ore which is not crushed to powder, and particularly
when the gold mines yield an abundance of itThe gold concentrates mixed
with litharge and hearth-lead, to which are added iron-scales, are smelted in the
blast furnace whose tap-hole is intermittently closed, or else in the first or the
second furnaces in which the tap-hole is always open. In this manner an
Two parts of roasted pyrites or
one part of unroasted, and are smelted together in the third furnace whose
tap-hole is always open, and are made into cakes. When these cakes have
been repeatedly roasted, they are re-smelted in the furnace whose tap
hole is temporarily closed, or in one of the two others whose tap-holes are
always open. In this manner the lead absorbs the gold, whether pure or
argentiferous or cupriferous, and the alloy is taken to the cupellation
furnace. Pyrites, or other gold ore which is mixed with much material that
is consumed by fire and flies out of the furnace, is melted with stone from
which iron is melted, if this is at hand. Six parts of such pyrites, or of gold
ore reduced to powder and sifted, four of stone from which iron is made, like
wise crushed, and three of slaked lime, are mixed together and moistened
with water; to these are added two and a half parts of the cakes which
contain some copper, together with one and a half parts of slag. A basket
ful of fragments of the cakes is thrown into the furnace, then the mixture
of other things, and then the slag. Now when the middle part of the
forehearth is filled with the molten material which runs down from the
furnace, the slags are first skimmed off, and then the cakes made of pyrites;
afterward the alloy of copper, gold and silver, which settles at the bottom,
is taken out. The cakes are gently roasted and re-smelted with lead, and
made into cakes, which are carried to other works. The alloy of copper,
gold, and silver is not roasted, but is re-melted again in a crucible with an
equal portion of lead. Cakes are also made much richer in copper and gold
than those I spoke of. In order that the alloy of gold and silver may be
ore, three
of a
heated together in the crucible until they melt. When the slag and the
cakes melted from pyrites have been skimmed off, the alloy is carried to
other furnaces.
There now follows silver, of which the native silver or the lumps of
silver
small iron pans, of which I will speak at the proper place; these lumps
are heated and thrown into molten silver-lead alloy in the cupellation furnace
when the silver is being separated from the lead, and refined. The tiny flakes
or tiny lumps of silver adhering to stones or marble or rocks, or again the
same little lumps mixed with earth, or silver not pure enough, should be
smelted in the furnace of which the tap-hole is only closed for a short time,
together with cakes melted from pyrites, with silver slags, and with stones
which easily fuse in fire of the second order.
In order that particles of silver should not fly away
of ore consisting of minute threads of pure silver and twigs of native silver,
they are enclosed in a pot, and are placed in the same furnace where the rest of
the silver ores are being smelted. Some people smelt lumps of native silver
not sufficiently pure, in pots or triangular crucibles, whose lids are sealed with
lute. They do not place these pots in the blast furnace, but arrange them in
the assay furnace into which the draught of the air blows through small holes. To one part of the native silver they add three parts of powdered litharge, as
many parts of hearth-lead, half a part of galena
salt and iron-scales. The alloy which settles at the bottom of the other
substances in the pot is carried to the cupellation furnace, and the slags are
re-melted with the other silver slags. They crush under the stamps and
wash the pots or crucibles to which silver-lead alloy or slags adhere, and
having collected the concentrates they smelt them together with the slags. This method of smelting
best, because the smallest portion of silver does not fly out of the pot or the
crucible, and get lost.
If bismuth ore or antimony ore or lead ore
smelted with the other ores of silver; likewise galena or pyrites, if there is
a small amount of it. If there be much galena, whether it contain a large
or a small amount of silver, it is smelted separately from the others;
which process I will explain a little further on.
Because lead and copper ores and their metals have much in common
with silver ores, it is fitting that I should say a great deal concerning them,
both now and later on. Also in the same manner, pyrites are smelted separ
ately if there be much of them. To three parts of roasted lead or copper
ore and one part of crude ore, are added concentrates if they were made by
washing the same ore, together with slags, and all are put in the third furnace
whose tap-hole is always open. Cakes are made from this charge, which,
when they have been quenched with water, are roasted. Of these roasted
cakes generally four parts are again mixed with one part of crude pyrites
and re-melted in the same furnace. Cakes are again made from this charge,
and if there is a large amount of copper in these cakes, copper is made
immediately after they have been roasted and re-melted; if there is little
copper in the cakes they are also roasted, but they are re-smelted with a little
soft slag. In this method the molten lead in the forehearth absorbs the
silver. From the pyritic material which floats on the top of the forehearth
are made cakes for the third time, and from them when they have been
roasted and re-smelted is made copper. Similarly, three parts of roasted
together with slag, and this charge is smelted and cakes are made from it;
these cakes having been roasted are re-smelted in the same furnace. By this
method the lead contained in the forehearth absorbs the silver, and the silver
lead is taken to the cupellation furnace. Crude quartz and stones which
easily fuse in fire of the third order, together with other ores in which there
is a small amount of silver, ought to be mixed with crude roasted pyrites or
profitably smelted separately. In a similar manner earths which contain
little silver are mixed with the same; but if pyrites and
available to the smelter, he smelts such silver ores and earths with litharge,
hearth-lead, slags, and stones which easily melt in the fire. The concentrates
originating from the washing of
they melt, are smelted with mixed litharge and hearth-lead, or else, after
being moistened with water, they are smelted with cakes made from pyrites
and By neither of these methods do (the concentrates) fall
back in the furnace, or fly out of it, driven by the blast of the bellows and the
agitation of the fire. If the concentrates originated from galena they are
smelted with it after having been roasted; and if from pyrites, then with
pyrites.
Pure copper ore, whether it is its own colour or is tinged with chrysocolla
or azure, and copper glance, or grey or black
furnace of which the tap-hole is closed for a very short time, or else is always If there is a large amount of silver in the ore it is run into the fore
hearth, and the greater part of the silver is absorbed by the molten lead, and
the remainder is sold with the copper to the proprietor of the works in which
silver is parted from copperIf there is a small amount of silver in the ore,
no lead is put into the forehearth to absorb the silver, and the above
is made direct. If such copper ore contains some minerals which do not
easily melt, as pyrites or
is melted, then crude pyrites which easily fuse are added to it, together
with slag. From this charge, when smelted, they make cakes; and from
the copper is made. But if there be some silver in the cakes, for which an
outlay of lead has to be made, then it is first run into the forehearth, and
the molten lead absorbs the silver.
Indeed,
purple, blackish and occasionally in parts blue, is smelted in the first
furnace whose tap-hole is always open. This is the method of the Tyrolese.
To as much
three—adds three cartloads of lead slags, one cartload of schist, one fifth of
a
quantity of concentrates collected from copper slag and accretions, all of
which he smelts for the space of twelve hours, and from which he makes six One half of the latter consists of copper and silver, and it settles to the bottom
of the forehearth. In every
of silver and sometimes half an In this way every week,
if the work is for six days, thirty-six
three The second smelter separates from the primary cakes the
greater part of the silver by absorbing it in lead. To eighteen
of cakes made from crude copper ore, he adds twelve
lead and litharge, three
five
exhausted liquation cakes
from smelting crude copper, together with a small quantity of concentrates
made from accretions, all of which he melts for the space of twelve hours,
and makes eighteen
pondia
there is half a After he has taken off the cakes with a
hooked bar, he pours the alloy out into copper or iron moulds; by this
method they make four cakes of alloy, which are carried to the works in
which silver is parted from copper. On the following day, the same smelter,
taking eighteen
from which lead is smelted, five
together with slags from the smelting of the primary cakes, and with concen
trates washed from the accretions which are usually made at that time. This charge is likewise smelted for the space of twelve hours, and he makes as
many as thirteen
of copper-lead-silver alloy, each
third of a When he has skimmed off the
tertiary cakes with a hooked bar, the alloy is poured into copper moulds, and
by this method four cakes of alloy are made, which, like the preceding four
cakes of alloy, are carried to the works in which silver is parted from copper. By this method the second smelter makes primary cakes on alternate days
and secondary cakes on the intermediate days. The third smelter takes
eleven cartloads of the tertiary cakes and adds to them three cartloads of
hard cakes poor in silver, together with the slag from smelting the secondary
cakes, and the concentrates from the accretions which are usually made
at that time. From this charge when smelted, he makes twenty
pondía
fifteen
pondiumThese latter cakes the
second smelter, as I said before, adds to the primary and secondary cakes
when he re-melts them. In the same way, from eleven cartloads of qua
ternary cakes thrice roasted, he makes the “final” cakes, of which one In this operation he
also makes fifteen These hard cakes the
them, while from the “final” cakes, thrice roasted and re-smelted, is made
black copper
The
silver or if it does not easily melt, is first smelted in the third furnace of which
the tap-hole is always open; and from this are made cakes, which after
being seven times roasted are re-smelted, and from these copper is melted
out; the cakes of copper are carried to a furnace of another kind, in which
they are melted for the third time, in order that in the copper “bottoms”
there may be more silver, while in the “tops” there may be less, which
process is explained in Book XI.
Pyrites, when they contain not only copper, but also silver, are smelted
in the manner I described when I treated of ores of silver. But if they are
poor in silver, and if the copper which is melted out of them cannot easily be
treated, they are smelted according to the method which I last explained.
Finally, the copper schists containing bitumen or sulphur are roasted,
and then smelted with stones which easily fuse in a fire of the second order,
and are made into cakes, on the top of which the slags float. From
these cakes, usually roasted seven times and re-melted, are melted out
slags and two kinds of cakes; one kind is of copper and occupies the
bottom of the crucible, and these are sold to the proprietors of the works in
which silver is parted from copper; the other kind of cakes are usually
re-melted with primary cakes. If the schist contains but a small amount of
copper, it is burned, crushed under the stamps, washed and sieved, and
the concentrates obtained from it are melted down; from this are made
cakes from which, when roasted, copper is made. If either chrysocolla or azure,
or yellow or black earth containing copper and silver, adheres to the schist,
it is not washed, but is crushed and smelted with stones which easily
fuse in fire of the second order.
Lead ore, whether it be
which it is melted, is often smelted in a special furnace, of which I have
spoken above, but no less often in the third furnace of which the tap-hole
is always open. The hearth and forehearth are made from powder containing
a small portion of iron hammer-scales; iron slag forms the principal flux
for such ores; both of these the expert smelters consider useful and to
the owner's advantage, because it is the nature of iron to attract lead. If
it is
down from the furnace into the forehearth, and when the slags have been
skimmed off, the lead is poured out with a ladle. If pyrites are smelted,
the first to flow from the furnace into the forehearth, as may be seen at
Goslar, is a white molten substance, injurious and noxious to silver, for it
consumes it. For this reason the slags which float on the top having been
skimmed off, this substance is poured out; or if it hardens, then it is taken
out with a hooked bar; and the walls of the furnace exude the same substance
of lead and silver. From the silver-lead alloy they first skim off the slags,
not rarely white, as some pyrites
cakes of pyrites, if there are any. In these cakes there is usually some copper;
but since there is usually but a very small quantity, and as the forest From the silver
lead poured into iron moulds they likewise make cakes: when these cakes
have been melted in the cupellation furnace, the silver is parted from the
lead, because part of the lead is transformed into litharge and part into
hearth-lead, from which in the blast furnace on re-melting they make
dium
The little black stones
in their own kind of furnace, which should be narrower than the other
furnaces, that there may be only the small fire which is necessary for this
ore. These furnaces are higher, that the height may compensate for the
narrowness and make them of almost the same capacity as the other furnaces. At the top, in front, they are closed and on the other side they are open, where
there are steps, because they cannot have the steps in front on account of the
forehearth; the smelters ascend by these steps to put the tin-stone into the
furnace. The hearth of the furnace is not made of powdered earth and char
coal, but on the floor of the works are placed sandstones which are not too
hard; these are set on a slight slope, and are two and three-quarters feet
long, the same number of feet wide, and two feet thick, for the thicker they are
the longer they last in the fire. Around them is constructed a rectangular
furnace eight or nine feet high, of broad sandstones, or of those common
substances which by nature are composed of diverse materialsOn the
inside the furnace is everywhere evenly covered with lute. The upper part
of the interior is two feet long and one foot wide, but below it is not so long
and wide. Above it are two hood-walls, between which the fumes ascend
from the furnace into the dust chamber, and through this they escape by a
narrow opening in the roof. The sandstones are sloped at the bed of the
furnace, so that the tin melted from the tin-stone may flow through the tap
hole of the furnace into the forehearth.
As there is no need for the smelters to have a fierce fire, it is not necessary
to place the nozzles of the bellows in bronze or iron pipes, but only through a
hole in the furnace wall. They place the bellows higher at the back so that
the blast from the nozzles may blow straight toward the tap-hole of the
furnace. That it may not be too fierce, the nozzles are wide, for if the fire
were fiercer, tin could not be melted out from the tin-stone, as it would be
consumed and turned into ashes. Near the steps is a hollowed stone,
in which is placed the tin-stone to be smelted; as often as the smelter
throws into the furnace an iron shovel-ful of this tin-stone, he puts on char
coal that was first put into a vat and washed with water to be cleansed from the
grit and small stones which adhere to it, lest they melt at the same time as the
tin-stone and obstruct the tap-hole and impede the flow of tin from the
furnace. The tap-hole of the furnace is always open; in front of it is a fore
hearth a little more than half a foot deep, three-quarters of two feet long and
one foot wide; this is lined with lute, and the tin from the tap-hole flows into it. On one side of the forehearth is a low wall, three-quarters of a foot wider
and one foot longer than the forehearth, on which lies charcoal powder. On the other side the floor of the building slopes, so that the slags may con
veniently run down and be carried away. As soon as the tin begins to run
from the tap-hole of the furnace into the forehearth, the smelter scrapes
may be separated from the hot metal, and so that it may be covered, lest
any part of it, being very hot, should fly away with the fumes. If after
the slag has been skimmed off, the powder does not cover up the whole of the
tin, the smelter draws a little more charcoal off the wall with a scraper. After
he has opened the tap-hole of the forehearth with a tapping-bar, in order
that the tin can flow into the tapping-pot, likewise smeared with lute, he
again closes the tap-hole with pure lute or lute mixed with powdered charcoal. The smelter, if he be diligent and experienced, has brooms at hand with which
he sweeps down the walls above the furnace; to these walls and to the
dust chamber minute tin-stones sometimes adhere with part of the fumes. If he be not sufficiently experienced in these matters and has melted at the
same time all of the tin-stone,—which is commonly of three sizes, large,
medium, and very small,—not a little waste of the proprietor's tin results;
because, before the large or the medium sizes have melted, the small have either
been burnt up in the furnace, or else, flying up from it, they not only adhere to
the walls but also fall in the dust chamber. The owner of the works has
the sweepings by right from the owner of the ore. For the above reasons
the most experienced smelter melts them down separately; indeed, he
melts the very small size in a wider furnace, the medium in a medium-sized
furnace, and the largest size in the narrowest furnace. When he melts down
the small size he uses a gentle blast from the bellows, with the medium-sized
a moderate one, with the large size a violent blast; and when he smelts
the first size he needs a slow fire, for the second a medium one, and for the
third a fierce one; yet he uses a much less fierce fire than when he smelts
the ores of gold, silver, or copper. When the workmen have spent three
consecutive days and nights in this work, as is usual, they have finished
their labours; in this time they are able to melt out a large weight of small
slowly, and a moderate quantity of the medium-sized which holds the middle
course. Those who do not smelt the tin-stone in furnaces made sometimes
wide, sometimes medium, or sometimes narrow, in order that great loss
should not be occasioned, throw in first the smallest size, then the medium,
then the large size, and finally those which are not quite pure; and the blast
of the bellows is altered as required. In order that the tin-stone thrown
into the furnace should not roll off from the large charcoal into the forehearth
before the tin is melted out of it, the smelter uses small charcoal; first some
of this moistened with water is placed in the furnace, and then he frequently
repeats this succession of charcoal and tin-stone.
The tin-stone, collected from material which during the summer was
washed in a ditch through which a stream was diverted, and during the winter
was screened on a perforated iron plate, is smelted in a furnace a palm wider
than that in which the fine tin-stone dug out of the earth is smelted. For
the smelting of these, a more vigorous blast of the bellows and a fiercer fire
is needed than for the smelting of the large tin-stone. Whichever kind of
tin-stone is being smelted, if the tin first flows from the furnace, much of it is
made, and if slags first flow from the furnace, then only a little. It happens
that the tin-stone is mixed with the slags when it is either less pure or
ferruginous—that is, not enough roasted—and is imperfect when put into
the furnace, or when it has been put in in a larger quantity than was neces
sary; then, although it may be pure and melt easily, the ore either runs
out of the furnace at the same time, mixed with the slags, or else it settles
so firmly at the bottom of the furnace that the operation of smelting being
necessarily interrupted, the furnace freezes up.
The tap-hole of the forehearth is opened and the tin is diverted into the
dipping-pot, and as often as the slags flow down the sloping floor of the build
ing they are skimmed off with a rabble; as soon as the tin has run out of
the forehearth, the tap-hole is again closed up with lute mixed with powdered
charcoal. Glowing coals are put in the dipping-pot so that the tin, after it
has run out, should not get chilled. If the metal is so impure that nothing
can be made from it, the material which has run out is made into cakes to be
re-smelted in the hearth, of which I shall have something to say later; if the
metal is pure, it is poured immediately upon thick copper plates, at first in
straight lines and then transversely over these to make a lattice. Each of
these lattice bars is impressed with an iron die; if the tin was melted out
of ore excavated from mines, then one stamp only, namely, that of the
Magistrate, is usually imprinted, but if it is made from tin-stone collected on
the ground after washing, then it is impressed with two seals, one the
Magistrate's and the other a fork which the washers use. Generally, three
of this kind of lattice bars are beaten and amalgamated into one mass with a
wooden mallet.
The slags that are skimmed off are afterward thrown with an iron shovel
into a small trough hollowed from a tree, and are cleansed from charcoal
A—FURNACE. B—ITS TAP-HOLE. C—FOREHEARTH. D—ITS TAP-HOLE. E—SLAGS.
F—SCRAPER. G—DIPPING-POT. H—WALLS OF THE CHIMNEY. I—BROOM.
K—COPPER PLATE. L—LATTICEWORK BARS. M—IRON SEAL OR DIE. N—HAMMER.
and then they are re-melted with the fine tin-stone next smelted. There
are some who crush the slags three times under wet stamps and re-melt them
three times; if a large quantity of this be smelted while still wet, little
tin is melted from it, because the slag, soon melted again, flows from the
furnace into the forehearth. Under the wet stamps are also crushed the
lute and broken rock with which such furnaces are lined, and also the
accretions, which often contain fine tin-stone, either not melted or half
melted, and also prills of tin. The tin-stone not yet melted runs out
through the screen into a trough, and is washed in the same way as tin
stone, while the partly melted and the prills of tin are taken from the mortar
box and washed in the sieve on which not very minute particles remain, and
thence to the canvas strake. The soot which adheres to that part of the
chimney which emits the smoke, also often contains very fine tin-stone which
flies from the furnace with the fumes, and this is washed in the strake which
I have just mentioned, and in other sluices. The prills of tin and the partly
melted tin-stone that are contained in the lute and broken rock with which
the furnace is lined, and in the remnants of the tin from the forehearth and
the dipping-pot, are smelted together with the tin-stone.
When tin-stone has been smelted for three days and as many nights in a
furnace prepared as I have said above, some little particles of the rock from
which the furnace is constructed become loosened by the fire and fall down;
and then the bellows being taken away, the furnace is broken through at the
back, and the accretions are first chipped off with hammers, and afterward
the whole of the interior of the furnace is re-fitted with the prepared sand
stone, and again evenly lined with lute. The sandstone placed on the bed
of the furnace, if it has become faulty, is taken out, and another is laid down
in its place; those rocks which are too large the smelter chips off and fits
with a sharp pick.
Some build two furnaces against the wall just like those I have described,
and above them build a vaulted ceiling supported by the wall and by four
pillars. Through holes in the vaulted ceiling the fumes from the furnaces
ascend into a dust chamber, similar to the one described before, except that
there is a window on each side and there is no door. The smelters, when
they have to clear away the flue-dust, mount by the steps at the side of the
furnaces, and climb by ladders into the dust chamber through the apertures
in the vaulted ceilings over the furnaces. They then remove the flue-dust
from everywhere and collect it in baskets, which are passed from one to the
other and emptied. This dust chamber differs from the other described, in
the fact that the chimneys, of which it has two, are not dissimilar to those
of a house; they receive the fumes which, being unable to escape through the
upper part of the chamber, are turned back and re-ascend and release the
tin; thus the tin set free by the fire and turned to ash, and the little tin
stones which fly up with the fumes, remain in the dust chamber or else adhere
to copper plates in the chimney.
A—FURNACES. B—FOREHEARTHS. C—THEIR TAP-HOLES. D—DIPPING-POTS. E—PILLARS.
F—DUST-CHAMBER. G—WINDOW. H—CHIMNEYS. I—TUB IN WHICH THE COALS ARE
WASHED.
If the tin is so impure that it cracks when struck with the hammer, it
is not immediately made into lattice-like bars, but into the cakes which I have
spoken of before, and these are refined by melting again on a hearth. This
hearth consists of sandstones, which slope toward the centre and a little
toward a dipping-pot; at their joints they are covered with lute. Dry
logs are arranged on each side, alternately upright and lengthwise, and more
closely in the middle; on this wood are placed five or six cakes of tin which
all together weigh about six
A—HEARTHS. B—DIPPING-POTS. C—WOOD. D—CAKES. E—LADLE. F—COPPER
PLATE. G—LATTICE-SHAPED BARS. H—IRON DIES. I—WOODEN MALLET. K—MASS
OF TIN BARS. L—SHOVEL.
the tin drips down and flows continuously into the dipping-pot which
is on the floor. The impure tin sinks to the bottom of this dipping-pot
and the pure tin floats on the top; then both are ladled out by the master,
who first takes out the pure tin, and by pouring it over thick plates of copper
makes lattice-like bars. Afterward he takes out the impure tin from which
he makes cakes; he discriminates between them, when he ladles and pours,
by the ease or difficulty of the flow. One
bare sells for more than a These lattice-like bars are
lighter than the others, and when five of them are pounded and amalgamated
with a wooden mallet, a mass is made which is stamped with an iron die. There are some who do not make a dipping-pot on the floor for the tin to run
into, but in the hearth itself; out of this the master, having removed the
charcoal, ladles the tin and pours it over the copper-plate. The dross which
adheres to the wood and the charcoal, having been collected, is re-smelted
in the furnace.
A—FURNACE. B—BELLOWS. C—IRON DISC. D—NOZZLE. E—WOODEN DISC.
F—BLOW-HOLE. G—HANDLE. H—HAFT. I—HOOPS. K—MASSES OF TIN.
Some of the Lusitanians melt tin from tin-stone in small furnaces.
They
use round bellows made of leather, of which the fore end is a round iron disc
and the rear end a disc of wood; in a hole in the former is fixed the nozzle,
in the middle of the latter the blow-hole. Above this is the handle or haft,
which draws open the round bellows and lets in the air, or compresses it and
drives the air out. Between the discs are several iron hoops to which the
leather is fastened, making such folds as are to be seen in paper lanterns that Since this kind of bellows does not give a vigorous blast,
because they are drawn apart and compressed slowly, the smelter is not
able during a whole day to smelt much more than half a
tin.
Very good iron ore is smelted
furnace. The hearth is three and a half feet high, and five feet long and
wide; in the centre of it is a crucible a foot deep and one and a half feet
wide, but it may be deeper or shallower, wider or narrower, according to whether
more or less ore is to be made into iron. A certain quantity of iron ore is
given to the master, out of which he may smelt either much or little iron. He being about to expend his skill and labour on this matter, first throws
charcoal into the crucible, and sprinkles over it an iron shovel-ful of crushed
iron ore mixed with unslaked lime. Then he repeatedly throws on charcoal
and sprinkles it with ore, and continues this until he has slowly built up a
heap; it melts when the charcoal has been kindled and the fire violently
stimulated by the blast of the bellows, which are skilfully fixed in a pipe.
and again sometimes in twelve. In order that the heat of the fire should not
burn his face, he covers it entirely with a cap, in which, however, there are
holes through which he may see and breathe. At the side of the hearth is a
bar which he raises as often as is necessary, when the bellows blow too violent
a blast, or when he adds more ore and charcoal. He also uses the bar
to draw off the slags, or to open or close the gates of the sluice, through
which the waters flow down on to the wheel which turns the axle that com
presses the bellows. In this sensible way, iron is melted out and a mass
weighing two or three
was rich. When this is done the master opens the slag-vent with the tapping
bar, and when all has run out he allows the iron mass to cool. Afterward
he and his assistant stir the iron with the bar, and then in order to chip off
the slags which had until then adhered to it, and to condense and flatten it,
they take it down from the furnace to the floor, and boat it with large wooden
mallets having slender handles five feet long. Thereupon it is immediately
A—HEARTH. B—HEAP. C—SLAG-VENT. D—IRON MASS. E—WOODEN MALLETS.
F—HAMMER. G—ANVIL.
raised by the cams of an axle turned by a water-wheel. Not long afterward
it is taken up with tongs and placed under the same hammer, and cut up with
a sharp iron into four, five, or six pieces, according to whether it is large or
small. These pieces, after they have been re-heated in the blacksmith's forge
and again placed on the anvil, are shaped by the smith into square bars or into
ploughshares or tyres, but mainly into bars. Four, six, or eight of these bars
weigh one-fifth of a
ments. During the blows from the hammer by which it is shaped by the smith,
a youth pours water with a ladle on to the glowing iron, and this is why the
blows make such a loud sound that they may be heard a long distance from
the works. The masses, if they remain and settle in the crucible of the
furnace in which the iron is smelted, become hard iron which can only be
hammered with difficulty, and from these they make the iron-shod heads for
the stamps, and such-like very hard articles.
But to iron ore which is cupriferous, or which when heated
with difficulty, it is necessary for us to give a fiercer fire and more labour;
because not only must we separate the parts of it in which there is metal from
those in which there is no metal, and break it up by dry stamps, but we must
also roast it, so that the other metals and noxious juices may be exhaled;
and we must wash it, so that the lighter parts may be separated from it. Such ores are smelted in a furnace similar to the blast furnace, but much
wider and higher, so that it may hold a great quantity of ore and much
charcoal; mounting the stairs at the side of the furnace, the smelters fill
it partly with fragments of ore not larger than nuts, and partly with
charcoal; and from this kind of ore once or twice smelted they make iron
which is suitable for re-heating in the blacksmith's forge, after it is flattened
out with the large iron hammer and cut into pieces with the sharp iron.
By skill with fire and fluxes is made that kind of iron from which steel
is made, which the Greeks call
is easy to melt, is hard and malleable. Now although iron may be
smelted from ore which contains other metals, yet it is then either soft
or brittle; such (iron) must be broken up into small pieces when it is
A—FURNACE. B—STAIRS. C—ORE. D—CHARCOAL.
A—FORGE. B—BELLOWS. C—TONGS. D—HAMMER. E—COLD STREAM.
Then a crucible
is made in the hearth of the smith's furnace, from the same moistened
powder from which are made the forehearths in front of the furnaces in
which ores of gold or silver are smelted; the width of this crucible is
about one and a half feet and the depth one foot. The bellows are so
placed that the blast may be blown through the nozzle into the middle
of the crucible. Then the whole of the crucible is filled with the best
charcoal, and it is surrounded by fragments of rock to hold in place the pieces
of iron and the superimposed charcoal. As soon as all the charcoal
is kindled and the crucible is glowing, a blast is blown from the bellows
and the master pours in gradually as much of the mixture of iron and flux
as he wishes. Into the middle of this, when it is melted, he puts four iron
masses each weighing thirty pounds, and heats them for five or six hours in a
fierce fire; he frequently stirs the melted iron with a bar, so that the small
pores in each mass absorb the minute particles, and these particles by their
own strength consume and expand the thick particles of the masses, which they
render soft and similar to dough. Afterward the master, aided by his
assistant, takes out a mass with the tongs and places it on the anvil, where
it is pounded by the hammer which is alternately raised and dropped by
means of the water-wheel; then, without delay, while it is still hot, he
throws it into water and tempers it; when it is tempered, he places it again
on the anvil, and breaks it with a blow from the same hammer. Then at
once examining the fragments, he decides whether the iron in some part or
other, or as a whole, appears to be dense and changed into steel; if so, he seizes
one mass after another with the tongs, and taking them out he breaks them
into pieces. Afterward he heats the mixture up again, and adds a portion
afresh to take the place of that which has been absorbed by the masses. This
restores the energy of that which is left, and the pieces of the masses are again
put back into the crucible and made purer. Each of these, after having
been heated, is seized with the tongs, put under the hammer and shaped
into a bar. While they are still glowing, he at once throws them into the very
coldest nearby running water, and in this manner, being suddenly condensed,
they are changed into pure steel, which is much harder and whiter than iron.
The ores of the other metals are not smelted in furnaces.
Quicksilver
ores and also antimony are melted in pots, and bismuth in troughs.
I will first speak of quicksilver.
This is collected when found in pools
formed from the outpourings of the veins and stringers; it is cleansed with
vinegar and salt, and then it is poured into canvas or soft leather, through
which, when squeezed and compressed, the quicksilver runs out into a pot or
pan. The ore of quicksilver is reduced in double or single pots.
If in double
pots, then the upper one is of a shape not very dissimilar to the glass ampullas
used by doctors, but they taper downward toward the bottom, and the
lower ones are little pots similar to those in which men and women make
cheese, but both are larger than these; it is necessary to sink the lower
pots up to the rims in earth, sand, or ashes. The ore, broken up into small
pieces is put into the upper pots; these having been entirely closed up
are joined with lute, lest the quicksilver which takes refuge in them should
be exhaled. There are some who, after the pots have been buried, do not fear
to leave them uncemented, and who boast that they are able to produce no
less weight of quicksilver than those who do cement them, but nevertheless
cementing with lute is the greatest protection against exhalation. In this
manner seven hundred pairs of pots are set together in the ground or on a
hearth. They must be surrounded on all sides with a mixture consisting of
crushed earth and charcoal, in such a way that the upper pots protrude to a
height of a palm above it. On both sides of the hearth rocks are first laid,
and upon them poles, across which the workmen place other poles transversely;
these poles do not touch the pots, nevertheless the fire heats the quick
silver, which fleeing from the heat is forced to run down through the moss
into the lower pots. If the ore is being reduced in the upper pots, it flees
from them, wherever there is an exit, into the lower pots, but if the ore on
the contrary is put in the lower pots the quicksilver rises into the upper pot
or into the operculum, which, together with the gourd-shaped vessels, are
cemented to the upper pots.
A—HEARTH. B—POLES. C—HEARTH WITHOUT FIRE IN WHICH THE POTS ARE PLACED.
D—ROCKS. E—ROWS OF POTS. F—UPPER POTS. G—LOWER POTS.
The pots, lest they should become defective, are moulded from the best
potters' clay, for if there are defects the quicksilver flies out in the fumes. If the fumes give out a very sweet odour it indicates that the quicksilver is
being lost, and since this loosens the teeth, the smelters and others standing by,
warned of the evil, turn their backs to the wind, which drives the fumes in
the opposite direction; for this reason, the building should be open around
the front and the sides, and exposed to the wind. If these pots are made
of cast copper they last a long time in the fire. This process for reducing the
ores of quicksilver is used by most people.
In a similar manner the antimony ore,
in upper pots which are twice as large as the lower ones. Their size, however,
depends on the cakes, which have not the same weight everywhere; for in
some places they are made to weigh six
where twenty. When the smelter has concluded his operation, he extin
guishes the fire with water, removes the lids from the pots, throws earth mixed
with ash around and over them, and when they have cooled, takes out the
cakes from the pots.
Other methods for reducing quicksilver are given below.
Big-bellied
pots, having been placed in the upper rectangular open part of a furnace,
are filled with the crushed ore. Each of these pots is covered with a lid
with a long nozzle—commonly called a
they are cemented. Each of the small earthenware vessels shaped like a
gourd receives two of these nozzles, and these are likewise cemented. Dried
A—POTS. B—OPERCULA. C—NOZZLES. D—GOURD-SHAPED EARTHENWARE VESSELS.
wood having been placed in the lower part of the furnace and kindled, the
ore is heated until all the quicksilver has risen into the operculum which is
over the pot; it then flows from the nozzle and is caught in the earthenware
gourd-shaped vessel.
Others build a hollow vaulted chamber, of which the paved floor is made
concave toward the centre. Inside the thick walls of the chamber are the
furnaces. The doors through which the wood is put are in the outer part of the
same wall. They place the pots in the furnaces and fill them with crushed
ore, then they cement the pots and the furnaces on all sides with lute, so that
none of the vapour may escape from them, and there is no entrance to the
A—ENCLOSED CHAMBER. B—DOOR. C—LITTLE WINDOWS. D—MOUTHS THROUGH THE
WALLS. E—FURNACE IN THE ENCLOSED CHAMBER. F—POTS.
furnaces except through their mouths. Between the dome and the paved
floor they arrange green trees, then they close the door and the little windows,
and cover them on all sides with moss and lute, so that none of the quick
silver can exhale from the chamber. After the wood has been kindled the
heat, and liking the cold, it escapes to the leaves of the trees, which
have a cooling power. When the operation is completed the smelter
extinguishes the fire, and when all gets cool he opens the door and the
windows, and collects the quicksilver, most of which, being heavy, falls of
its own accord from the trees, and flows into the concave part of the floor;
if all should not have fallen from the trees, they are shaken to make it fall.
The following is the fourth method of reducing ores of quicksilver.
A
larger pot standing on a tripod is filled with crushed ore, and over the ore is
put sand or ashes to a thickness of two digits, and tamped; then in
the mouth of this pot is inserted the mouth of another smaller pot and
cemented with lute, lest the vapours are emitted. The ore heated by the fire
exhales the quicksilver, which, penetrating through the sand or the ashes,
takes refuge in the upper pot, where condensing into drops it falls back into
the sand or the ashes, from which the quicksilver is washed and collected.
A—LARGER POT. B—SMALLER. C—TRIPOD. D—TUB IN WHICH THE SAND IS WASHED.
The fifth method is not very unlike the fourth.
In the place of these
pots are set other pots, likewise of earthenware, having a narrow bottom
and a wide mouth. These are nearly filled with crushed ore, which is likewise
covered with ashes to a depth of two digits and tamped in. The pots are
liquid litharge, and on the lid are placed heavy stones. The pots are set on
the furnace, and the ore is heated and similarly exhales quicksilver, which
fleeing from the heat takes refuge in the lid; on congealing there, it falls
back into the ashes, from which, when washed, the quicksilver is collected.
A—POTS. B—LIDS. C—STONES. D—FURNACE.
By these five methods quicksilver may be made, and of these not one is
to be despised or repudiated; nevertheless, if the mine supplies a great
abundance of ore, the first is the most expeditious and practical, because a
large quantity of ore can be reduced at the same time without great expense.
Bismuth
methods. First a small pit is dug in the dry ground; into this pulverised
charcoal is thrown and tamped in, and then it is dried with burning charcoal. Afterward, thick dry pieces of beech wood are placed over the pit, and the
bismuth ore is thrown on it. As soon as the kindled wood burns, the heated
ore drips with bismuth, which runs down into the pit, from which when cooled
the cakes are removed. Because pieces of burnt wood, or often charcoal
and occasionally slag, drop into the bismuth which collects in the pit, and
make it impure, it is put back into another kind of crucible to be melted,
so that pure cakes may be made. There are some who, bearing these things
in mind, dig a pit on a sloping place and below it put a forehearth, into
which the bismuth continually flows, and thus remains clean; then they
take it out with ladles and pour it into iron pans lined inside with lute, and
make cakes of it. They cover such pits with flat stones, whose joints are
besmeared with a lute of mixed dust and crushed charcoal, lest the joints
should absorb the molten bismuth. Another method is to put the ore in
troughs made of fir-wood and placed on sloping ground; they place small
firewood over it, kindling it when a gentle wind blows, and thus the ore is
heated. In this manner the bismuth melts and runs down from the troughs
into a pit below, while there remains slag, or stones, which are of a yellow
colour, as is also the wood laid across the pit. These are also sold.
A—PIT ACROSS WHICH WOOD IS PLACED. B—FOREHEARTH. C—LADLE. D—IRON
MOULD. E—CAKES. F—EMPTY POT LINED WITH STONES IN LAYERS. G—TROUGHS.
H—PITS DUG AT THE FOOT OF THE TROUGHS. I—SMALL WOOD LAID OVER THE TROUGHS.
K—WIND.
Others reduce the ore in iron pans as next described.
They lay small
pieces of dry wood alternately straight and transversely upon bricks, one and
a half feet apart, and set fire to it. Near it they put small iron pans lined
on the inside with lute, and full of broken ore; then when the wind
blows the flame of the fierce fire over the pans, the bismuth drips out of the
ore; wherefore, in order that it may run, the ore is stirred with the tongs; but
when they decide that all the bismuth is exuded, they seize the pans with
the tongs and remove them, and pour out the bismuth into empty pans, and
by turning many into one they make cakes. Others reduce the ore, when it is
not mixed with In this
case they make a pit and a crucible of crushed earth mixed with pulverised
A—WOOD. B—BRICKS. C—PANS. D—FURNACE. E—CRUCIBLE. F—PIPE.
G—DIPPING-POT.
charcoal, and into it they put the broken ore, or the concentrates from
washing, from which they make more bismuth. If they put in ore,
they reduce it with charcoal and small dried wood mixed, and if concentrates,
they use charcoal only; they blow both materials with a gentle blast from From the crucible is a small pipe through which the molten
bismuth runs down into a dipping-pot, and from this cakes are made.
On a dump thrown up from the mines, other people construct a hearth
exposed to the wind, a foot high, three feet wide, and four and a half feet
long. It is held together by four boards, and the whole is thickly coated at
the top with lute. On this hearth they first put small dried sticks of fir wood,
then over them they throw broken ore; then they lay more wood over it,
and when the wind blows they kindle it. In this manner the bismuth drips
out of the ore, and afterward the ashes of the wood consumed by the fire and
the charcoals are swept away. The drops of bismuth which fall down into
the hearth are congealed by the cold, and they are taken away with the
tongs and thrown into a basket. From the melted bismuth they make
cakes in iron pans.
A—HEARTH IN WHICH ORE IS MELTED. B—HEARTH ON WHICH LIE DROPS OF BISMUTH.
C—TONGS. D—BASKET. E—WIND.
Others again make a box eight feet long, four feet wide, and two feet high,
which they fill almost full of sand and cover with bricks, thus making
the hearth. The box has in the centre a wooden pivot, which turns in a hole
in two beams laid transversely one upon the other; these beams are hard and
thick, are sunk into the ground, both ends are perforated, and through
fixed, and that the box may turn round, and may be turned toward the wind
from whichever quarter of the sky it may blow. In such a hearth they put
A—BOX. B—PIVOT. C—TRANSVERSE WOOD BEAMS. D—GRATE. E—ITS FEET.
F—BURNING WOOD. G—STICK. H—PANS IN WHICH THE BISMUTH IS MELTED.
I—PANS FOR MOULDS. K—CAKES. L—FORK. M—BRUSH.
an iron grate, as long and wide as the box and threequarters of a foot high;
it has six feet, and there are so many transverse bars that they almost touch
one another. On the grate they lay pine-wood and over it broken ore, and over
this they again lay pine-wood. When it has been kindled the ore melts, out
of which the bismuth drips down; since very little wood is burned, this is the
most profitable method of smelting the bismuth. The bismuth drips through
the grate on to the hearth, while the other things remain upon the grate with
the charcoal. When the work is finished, the workman takes a stick from the
hearth and overturns the grate, and the things which have accumulated on
it; with a brush he sweeps up the bismuth and collects it in a basket, and
then he melts it in an iron pan and makes cakes. As soon as possible after
it is cool, he turns the pans over, so that the cakes may fall out, using for
this purpose a two-pronged fork of which one prong is again forked. And
immediately afterward he returns to his labours.
END OF BOOK IX.
Questions as to the methods of smelting ores and
of obtaining metals I discussed in Book IX. Following this, I should explain in what manner the
precious metals are parted from the base metals, or
on the other hand the base metals from the preciousFrequently two metals, occasionally more than
two, are melted out of one ore, because in
nature generally there is some amount of gold in
silver and in copper, and some silver in gold, copper,
lead, and iron; likewise some copper in gold, silver, lead, and iron, and
some lead in silver; and lastly, some iron in copperBut I will begin with
gold.
Gold is parted from silver, or likewise the latter from the former, whether
it be mixed by nature or by art, by means of
which consist of almost the same things as this In order to preserve the
sequence, I will first speak of the ingredients of which this
of the method of making it, then of the manner in which gold is parted from
silver or silver from gold. Almost all these ingredients contain vitriol or
alum, which, by themselves, but much more when joined with saltpetre, are
powerful to part silver from gold. As to the other things that are added to
them, they cannot individually by their own strength and nature separate
those metals, but joined they are very powerful. Since there are many
combinations, I will set out a few. In the first, the use of which is common
and general, there is one The second contains two
petre, and as much spring or river water by weight as will pass away whilst
the vitriol is being reduced to powder by the fire. The third consists of four
and a half The fourth consists of two
as many
of a The fifth is composed of one
of spring water. The sixth consists of four
saltpetre, one of alum, one
fierce furnace are easily liquefied by fire of the third order, and one and a
half The seventh is made of two
and a half
which when thrown into a glowing furnace are easily liquefied by fire of the
third order, and five-sixths of a The eighth is made of
two
half
silver; and to each separate The
ninth contains two
likewise one
of spring water. Only the tenth lacks vitriol and alum, but it contains three
are easily liquefied by fire of the third order, half a
of
All the vitriol from which the
powder in the following way. It is thrown into an earthen crucible lined on
the inside with litharge, and heated until it melts; then it is stirred with a
copper wire, and after it has cooled it is pounded to powder. In the same
manner saltpetre melted by the fire is pounded to powder when it has cooled. Some indeed place alum upon an iron plate, roast it, and make it into powder.
Although all these
impurities, yet there are certain compositions which possess singular power.
a For each
of spring or river water, as to which, since this pertains to all these com
pounds, it is sufficient to have mentioned once for all. The second com
position is made from one
vitriol, lime, alum, ash which the dyers of wool use, one quarter of a
of verdigris, and one and a half The third consists of three
baked bricks. The fourth consists of one
and half a
The furnace in which
two feet long and wide, and as many feet high and a half besides. It is
covered with iron plates supported with iron rods; these plates are smeared
on the top with lute, and they have in the centre a round hole, large enough to
hold the earthen vessel in which the glass ampulla is placed, and on each side of
the centre hole are two small round air-holes. The lower part of the furnace,
in order to hold the burning charcoal, has iron plates at the height of a palm,
likewise supported by iron rods. In the middle of the front there is the
mouth, made for the purpose of putting the fire into the furnace; this mouth
is half a foot high and wide, and rounded at the top, and under it is the
draught opening. Into the earthen vessel set over the hole is placed clean
sand a digit deep, and in it the glass ampulla is set as deeply as it is smeared
with lute. The lower quarter is smeared eight or ten times with nearly liquid
lute, each time to the thickness of a blade, and each time it is dried again,
until it has become as thick as the thumb; this kind of lute is well beaten
with an iron rod, and is thoroughly mixed with hair or cotton thread, or with
wool and salt, that it should not crackle. The many things of which the
compounds are made must not fill the ampulla completely, lest when boiling
they rise into the operculum. The operculum is likewise made of glass,
and is closely joined to the ampulla with linen, cemented with wheat flour
and white of egg moistened with water, and then lute free from salt is spread
over that part of it. In a similar way the spout of the operculum is joined
by linen covered with lute to another glass ampulla which receives the distilled A kind of thin iron nail or small wooden peg, a little thicker than a
needle, is fixed in this joint, in order that when air seems necessary to the
artificer distilling by this process he can pull it out; this is necessary when
too much of the vapour has been driven into the upper part. The four air
holes which, as I have said, are on the top of the furnace beside the large
hole on which the ampulla is placed, are likewise covered with lute.
A—FURNACE. B—ITS ROUND HOLE. C—AIR-HOLES. D—MOUTH OF THE FURNACE.
E—DRAUGHT OPENING UNDER IT. F—EARTHENWARE CRUCIBLE. G—AMPULLA.
H—OPERCULUM. I—ITS SPOUT. K—OTHER AMPULLA. L—BASKET IN WHICH THIS IS
USUALLY PLACED LEST IT SHOULD BE BROKEN.
All this preparation having been accomplished in order, and the
ingredients placed in the ampulla, they are gradually heated over burning
charcoal until they begin to exhale vapour and the ampulla is seen to trickle
with moisture. But when this, on account of the rising of the vapour, turns
red, and the
work with the utmost care, lest the drops should fall at a quicker rate than
one for every five movements of the clock or the striking of its bell, and
not slower than one for every ten; for if it falls faster the glasses will be
broken, and if it drops more slowly the work begun cannot be completed
within the definite time, that is within the space of twenty-four hours. To
prevent the first accident, part of the coals are extracted by means of an iron
implement similar to pincers; and in order to prevent the second happening,
small dry pieces of oak are placed upon the coals, and the substances in the
ampulla are heated with a sharper fire, and the air-holes on the furnace
are re-opened if need arise. As soon as the drops are being distilled,
the glass ampulla which receives them is covered with a piece of linen
repelled. When the ingredients have been heated and the ampulla in which
they were placed is whitened with moisture, it is heated by a fiercer fire until
all the drops have been distilledAfter the furnace has cooled, the
filtered and poured into a small glass ampulla, and into the same is put half
a This is poured into the ampulla containing all the rest of the
soon as the lees have sunk to the bottom the
reserved for use.
Gold is parted from silver by the following method
The alloy, with lead
added to it, is first heated in a cupel until all the lead is exhaled, and eight
if there is more copper in it, the silver separated from the gold soon unites
with it again. Such molten silver containing gold is formed into granules,
being stirred by means of a rod split at the lower end, or else is poured into an
iron mould, and when cooled is made into thin leaves. As the process of
making granules from argentiferous gold demands greater care and diligence than
making them from any other metals, I will now explain the method briefly. The
alloy is first placed in a crucible, which is then covered with a lid and placed
in another earthen crucible containing a few ashes. Then they are placed
in the furnace, and after they are surrounded by charcoal, the fire is blown
by the blast of a bellows, and lest the charcoal fall away it is surrounded
by stones or bricks. Soon afterward charcoal is thrown over the upper
crucible and covered with live coals; these again are covered with charcoal,
so that the crucible is surrounded and covered on all sides with it. It
is necessary to heat the crucibles with charcoal for the space of half an hour or
a little longer, and to provide that there is no deficiency of charcoal, lest the
alloy become chilled; after this the air is blown in through the nozzle of the
bellows, that the gold may begin to melt. Soon afterward it is turned
round, and a test is quickly taken to see whether it be melted, and if it is
melted, fluxes are thrown into it; it is advisable to cover up the crucible
again closely that the contents may not be exhaled. The contents are heated
together for as long as it would take to walk fifteen paces, and then the
crucible is seized with tongs and the gold is emptied into an oblong vessel
containing very cold water, by pouring it slowly from a height so that the
granules will not be too big; in proportion as they are lighter, more fine
and more irregular, the better they are, therefore the water is frequently
stirred with a rod split into four parts from the lower end to the middle.
The leaves are cut into small pieces, and they or the silver granules are
put into a glass ampulla, and the
digit above the silver. The ampulla is covered with a bladder or with waxed
linen, lest the contents exhale. Then it is heated until the silver is dissolved,
the indication of which is the bubbling of the The gold remains in the
bottom, of a blackish colour, and the silver mixed with the Some pour the latter into a copper bowl and pour into it cold water, which
immediately congeals the silver; this they take out and dry, having poured
off the They heat the dried silver in an earthenware crucible until
it melts, and when it is melted they pour it into an iron mould.
The gold which remains in the ampulla they wash with warm water,
filter, dry, and heat in a crucible with a little
borax, and when it is melted they likewise pour it into an iron mould.
Some workers, into an ampulla which contains gold and silver and the
valens
poured, throw fine leaves of black lead and copper; by this means the gold
adheres to the lead and the silver to the copper, and separately the lead
from the gold, and separately the copper from the silver, are parted in a
cupel. But no method is approved by us which loses the
gold from silver, for it might be used again
A glass ampulla, which bulges up inside at the bottom like a cone, is
covered on the lower part of the outside with lute in the way explained above,
and into it is put silver bullion weighing three and a half Roman The
placed in sand contained in an earthen vessel, or in a box, that it may be
warmed with a gentle fire. Lest the
ampulla is plastered on all sides with lute, and it is covered with a glass
operculum, under whose spout is placed another ampulla which receives the
distilled drops; this receiver is likewise arranged in a box containing sand. When the contents are heated it reddens, but when the redness no
longer appears to increase, it is taken out of the vessel or box and shaken;
by this motion the
done two or three times before other
concluded, and much less When the first charge has all
been distilled, as much silver as at first is again put into the ampulla, for if
too much were put in at once, the gold would be parted from it with difficulty. Then the second
ampulla may be of equal temperature, so that the latter may not be cracked
by the cold; also if a cold wind blows on it, it is apt to crack. Then the third
say more
of burned brick. The artificer keeps in hand two
stronger than the other; the stronger is used at first, then the less strong,
then at the last again the stronger. When the gold becomes of a reddish
yellow colour, spring water is poured in and heated until it boils. The gold is
washed four times and then heated in the crucible until it melts. The water
with which it was washed is put back, for there is a little silver in it; for
this reason it is poured into an ampulla and heated, and the drops first distilled
are received by one ampulla, while those which come later, that is to say
when the operculum begins to get red, fall into another. This latter
useful for testing the gold, the former for washing it; the former may also
be poured over the ingredients from which the
The
an ampulla wide at the base, the top of which is also smeared with lute and
covered by an operculum, and is then boiled as before in order that it may be
separated from the silver. If there be so much
A—AMPULLAE ARRANGED IN THE VESSELS. B—AN AMPULLA STANDING UPRIGHT BETWEEN
IRON RODS. C—AMPULLAE PLACED IN THE SAND WHICH IS CONTAINED IN A BOX, THE
SPOUTS OF WHICH REACH FROM THE OPERCULA INTO AMPULLAE PLACED UNDER THEM.
D—AMPULLAE LIKEWISE PLACED IN SAND WHICH IS CONTAINED IN A BOX, OF WHICH THE
SPOUT FROM THE OPERCULA EXTENDS CROSSWISE INTO AMPULLAE PLACED UNDER THEM.
E—OTHER AMPULLAE RECEIVING THE DISTILLED
CONTAINED IN THE LOWER BOXES. F—IRON TRIPOD, IN WHICH THE AMPULLA IS USUALLY
PLACED WHEN THERE ARE NOT MANY PARTICLES OF GOLD TO BE PARTED FROM THE SILVER.
G—VESSEL.
rises into the operculum, there is put into the ampulla one lozenge or two;
these are made of soap, cut into small pieces and mixed together with
powdered argol, and then heated in a pot over a gentle fire; or else the
contents are stirred with a hazel twig split at the bottom, and in both cases
the When the powerful vapour
appears, the But,
lest the vapours should escape from the ampulla and the operculum in that
part where their mouths communicate, they are entirely sealed all round. The
put into the furnace so that the live coals touch the vessel. The ampulla is
taken out as soon as all the
by the heat of the fire, alone remains in it; the silver is shaken out and put
in an earthenware crucible, and heated until it melts. The molten glass is
extracted with an iron rod curved at the lower end, and the silver is made The glass extracted from the crucible is ground to powder, and
to this are added litharge, argol, glass-galls, and saltpetre, and they are
melted in an earthen crucible. The button that settles is transferred to the
cupel and re-melted.
If the silver was not sufficiently dried by the heat of the fire, that which
is contained in the upper part of the ampulla will appear black; this when
melted will be consumed. When the lute, which was smeared round the
lower part of the ampulla, has been removed, it is placed in the crucible and
is re-melted, until at last there is no more appearance of black
If to the first
must be poured in before the powerful vapours appear, and the
the oily substance, and the operculum becomes red; for he who pours in the
out and the glass breaks. If the ampulla breaks when the gold is being parted
from the silver or the silver from the
sand or the lute or the bricks, whereupon, without any delay, the red hot coals
should be taken out of the furnace and the fire extinguished. The sand and
bricks after being crushed should be thrown into a copper vessel, warm water. should be poured over them, and they should be put aside for the space of
twelve hours; afterward the water should be strained through a canvas, and
the canvas, since it contains silver, should be dried by the heat of the sun or
the fire, and then placed in an earthen crucible and heated until the silver
melts, this being poured out into an iron mould. The strained water should
be poured into an ampulla and separated from the silver, of which it contains
a minute portion; the sand should be mixed with litharge, glass-galls,
argol, saltpetre, and salt, and heated in an earthen crucible. The button
which settles at the bottom should be transferred to a cupel, and should
be re-melted, in order that the lead may be separated from the silver. The
lute, with lead added, should be heated in an earthen crucible, then
re-melted in a cupel.
We also separate silver from gold by the same method when we assay
them. For this purpose the alloy is first rubbed against a touchstone, in
order to learn what proportion of silver there is in it; then as much silver
as is necessary is added to the argentiferous gold, in a
must be less than a After lead has been added, it is melted in a cupel until the lead and the
copper have exhaled, then the alloy of gold with silver is flattened out, and
little tubes are made of the leaves; these are put into a glass ampulla,
and strong The tubes after
this are absolutely pure, with the exception of only a quarter of a
which is silver; for only this much silver remains in eight
As great expense is incurred in parting the metals by the methods that
I have explained, as night vigils are necessary when
and as generally much labour and great pains have to be expended on this
matter, other methods for parting have been invented by clever men, which
are less costly, less laborious, and in which there is less loss if through care
lessness an error is made. There are three methods, the first performed with
sulphur, the second with antimony, the third by means of some compound
which consists of these or other ingredients.
In the first method,
crucible and made into granules. For every
a sixth of a
when crushed, is sprinkled over the moistened granules, and then they are put
into a new carthen pot of the capacity of four
if there is an abundance of granules. The pot, having been filled, is covered
with an earthen lid and smeared over, and placed within a circle of fire set one
and a half feet distant from the pot on all sides, in order that the sulphur
added to the silver should not be distilled when melted. The pot is opened,
A—POT. B—CIRCULAR FIRE. C—CRUCIBLES. D—THEIR LIDS. E—LID OF THE POT.
F—FURNACE. G—IRON ROD.
the black-coloured granules are taken out, and afterward thirty-three
of these granules are placed in an earthen crucible, if it has such capacity. For every
copper, if each
a quarter of a If,
however, the silver contains five-sixths of a
and a half of copper, then there are weighed out a quarter of a
granules. If a
of copper, or eleven-twelfths and a
copper, then are weighed out a quarter of a Lastly, if there is only pure silver, then as much
as a third of a Half
of these copper granules are added soon afterward to the black-coloured
silver granules. The crucible should be tightly covered and smeared over
with lute, and placed in a furnace, into which the air is drawn through the
draught-holes. As soon as the silver is melted, the crucible is opened, and
there is placed in it a heaped ladleful more of granulated copper, and also
a heaped ladleful of a powder which consists of equal parts of litharge, of
granulated lead, of salt, and of glass-galls; then the crucible is again covered
with the lid. When the copper granules are melted, more are put in, together
with the powder, until all have been put in.
A little of the regulus is taken from the crucible, but not from the gold
lump which has settled at the bottom, and a
the cupels, which contain an
of these cupels. In this way half a
As soon as
the lead and copper have been separated from the silver, a third of it is
thrown into a glass ampulla, and By this
method is shown whether the sulphur has parted all the gold from the silver,
or not. If one wishes to know the size of the gold lump which has settled
at the bottom of the crucible, an iron rod moistened with water is covered
with chalk, and when the rod is dry it is pushed down straight into the
crucible, and the rod remains bright to the height of the gold lump; the
remaining part of the rod is coloured black by the regulus, which adheres to
the rod if it is not quickly removed.
If when the rod has been extracted the gold is observed to be
satisfactorily parted from the silver, the regulus is poured out, the gold
button is taken out of the crucible, and in some clean place the regulus is
chipped off from it, although it usually flies apart. The lump itself is reduced
to granules, and for every
each of crushed sulphur and of granular copper, and all are placed together
in an earthen crucible, not into a pot. When they are melted, in order that
the gold may more quickly settle at the bottom, the powder which I have
mentioned is added.
Although minute particles of gold appear to scintillate in the regulus
of copper and silver, yet if all that are in a
single sesterce, then the sulphur has satisfactorily parted the gold from the
back again into the earthen crucible, and it is not advantageous to add sulphur,
but only a little copper and powder, by which method a gold lump is again
made to settle at the bottom; and this one is added to the other button which
is not rich in gold.
When gold is parted from sixty-six
and sulphur regulus weighs one hundred and thirty-two To separate
the copper from the silver we require five hundred
less, with which the regulus is melted in the second furnace. In this
manner litharge and hearth-lead are made, which are re-smelted in the first
furnace. The cakes that are made from these are placed in the third furnace,
so that the lead may be separated from the copper and used again, for it
contains very little silver. The crucibles and their covers are crushed, washed,
and the sediment is melted together with litharge and hearth-lead.
Those who wish to separate all the silver from the gold by this method
leave one part of gold to three of silver, and then reduce the alloy to
granules. Then they place it in an ampulla, and by pouring
it, part the gold from the silver, which process I explained in Book VII.
If sulphur from the lye with which
enough to float an egg thrown into it, and is boiled until it no longer emits
fumes, and melts when placed upon glowing coals, then, if such sulphur is
thrown into the melted silver, it parts the gold from it.
Silver is also parted from gold by means of
If in a
gold there are seven, or six, or five double
of
not consume the gold, it is melted with copper in a red hot earthern crucible. If the gold contains some portion of copper, then to eight
silver. The gold is first placed in a red hot earthen crucible, and when
melted it swells, and a little
short space of time, when this has melted, it likewise again swells, and
when this occurs it is advisable to put in all the remainder of the
and to cover the crucible with a lid, and then to heat the mixture for the
time required to walk thirty-five paces. Then it is at once poured out into
an iron pot, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, which was first
heated and smeared over with tallow or wax, and set on an iron or wooden
block. It is shaken violently, and by this agitation the gold lump settles
to the bottom, and when the pot has cooled it is tapped loose, and is again
melted four times in the same way. But each time a less weight of
is added to the gold, until finally only twice as much
there is gold, or a little more; then the gold lump is melted in a cupel. The
time a gold lump settles, so that there are three or four gold lumps, and
these are all melted together in a cupel.
To two
and one
where a lump likewise settles at the bottom; this lump is melted in the
cupel. Finally, the
in which, after all the rest has been consumed by the fire, the silver alone
remains. If the
and glass-galls, before it is melted in the cupel, part of the silver is consumed,
and is absorbed by the ash and powder of which the cupel is made.
The crucible in which the gold and silver alloy are melted with
and also the cupel, are placed in a furnace, which is usually of the kind
A—FURNACE IN WHICH THE AIR IS DRAWN IN THROUGH HOLES. B—GOLDSMITH'S FORGE.
C—EARTHEN CRUCIBLES. D—IRON POTS. E—BLOCK.
in which the air is drawn in through holes; or else they are placed in a gold
smith's forge.
Just as
parted the gold, shows us whether all has been separated or whether
particles of gold remain in the silver; so do certain ingredients, if placed in
the pot or crucible “alternately” with the gold, from which the silver has
been parted by
separated or not.
We use cements
so ingeniously and admirably from gold. There are various cements.
Some
petre, half an The bricks
or tiles from which the dust is made must be composed of fatty clays, free from
sand, grit, and small stones, and must be moderately burnt and very old.
Another cement is made of a
Another cement is made
of a
saltpetre, an Another
has one
sixth of a Another is made of half a
brick dust, a third of a
one Another consists of a
refined salt, a sixth of white vitriol
half an Another is