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<?xml version="1.0"?>

<!DOCTYPE archimedes SYSTEM "../dtd/archimedes.dtd" ><archimedes> <info> <author>Agricola, Georgius</author> <title>De re metallica</title> <date>1912</date>

<!DOCTYPE archimedes SYSTEM "../dtd/archimedes.dtd" ><archimedes>

<info>

<author>Agricola, Georgius</author>

<place>London</place> <translator>HERBERT CLARK HOOVER</translator> <lang>en</lang> <cvs_file>agric_remet_02_en.xml</cvs_file><cvs_version>1.12</cvs_version><locator>0000000002</locator> </info> <text> <front> </front> <body> <chap> <pb xlink:href="002/01/001.jpg" />

<title>De re metallica</title>

<place>London</place>

<translator>HERBERT CLARK HOOVER</translator>

<cvs_file>agric_remet_02_en.xml</cvs_file>

<cvs_version>1.12</cvs_version>

</info>

<s>GEORGIUS AGRICOLA</s>

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<s><emph type="bold"/><emph type="italics"/>Dover Publications, Inc.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<s><emph type="bold"/>TO <lb/>JOHN CASPAR BRANNER Ph.D.,<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

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<s>Bibliothek</s>

<s>PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/004.jpg" /></chap><chap><pb xlink:href="002/01/005.jpg" />

<s>PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</s><pb/>

<s><emph type="bold"/>TRANSLATORS' PREFACE.<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

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<s>Agricola's Latin, while mostly free from mediæval corruption, is some<lb/>what tainted with German construction. </s>

<s>Moreover some portions have not <pb xlink:href="002/01/006.jpg" pagenum="ii"/>the continuous flow of sustained thought which others display, but the fact <lb/>that the writing of the work extended over a period of twenty years, suffic<lb/>iently explains the considerable variation in style. </s>

<s>Moreover some portions have not <pb pagenum="ii"/>the continuous flow of sustained thought which others display, but the fact <lb/>that the writing of the work extended over a period of twenty years, suffic<lb/>iently explains the considerable variation in style. </s>

<s>The technical descriptions <lb/>in the later books often take the form of House-that-Jack-built sentences <lb/>which have had to be at least partially broken up and the subject <lb/>occasionally re-introduced. </s>

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<s>Considering the part which the metallic arts <lb/>have played in human history, the paucity of their literature down to <lb/>Agricola's time is amazing. </s>

<s>No doubt the arts were jealously guarded by <lb/>their practitioners as a sort of stock-in-trade, and it is also probable that <lb/>those who had knowledge were not usually of a literary turn of mind; and, <pb xlink:href="002/01/007.jpg" pagenum="iii"/>on the other hand, the small army of writers prior to his time were not much <lb/>interested in the description of industrial pursuits. </s>

<s>No doubt the arts were jealously guarded by <lb/>their practitioners as a sort of stock-in-trade, and it is also probable that <lb/>those who had knowledge were not usually of a literary turn of mind; and, <pb pagenum="iii"/>on the other hand, the small army of writers prior to his time were not much <lb/>interested in the description of industrial pursuits. </s>

<s>Moreover, in those <lb/>thousands of years prior to printing, the tedious and expensive transcription of <lb/>manuscripts by hand was mostly applied to matters of more general interest, <lb/>and therefore many writings may have been lost in consequence. </s>

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<s>HORNTON STREET, LONDON.</s>

<s><emph type="bold"/>INTRODUCTION.<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

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<s>His <lb/>real name was Georg Bauer (“peasant”), and it was probably Latinized by <lb/>his teachers, as was the custom of the time. </s>

<s>His own brother, in receipts <pb xlink:href="002/01/010.jpg" pagenum="vi"/>preserved in the archives of the Zwickau Town Council, calls himself “Bauer,” <lb/>and in them refers to his brother “Agricola.” He entered the University of <lb/>Leipsic at the age of twenty, and after about three and one-half years' attendance <lb/>there gained the degree of <emph type="italics"/>Baccalaureus Artíum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> In 1518 he became Vice<lb/>Principal of the Municipal School at Zwickau, where he taught Greek and Latin. <lb/></s>

<s>His own brother, in receipts <pb pagenum="vi"/>preserved in the archives of the Zwickau Town Council, calls himself “Bauer,” <lb/>and in them refers to his brother “Agricola.” He entered the University of <lb/>Leipsic at the age of twenty, and after about three and one-half years' attendance <lb/>there gained the degree of <emph type="italics"/>Baccalaureus Artíum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> In 1518 he became Vice<lb/>Principal of the Municipal School at Zwickau, where he taught Greek and Latin. <lb/></s>

<s>In 1520 he became Principal, and among his assistants was Johannes Förster, <lb/>better known as Luther's collaborator in the translation of the Bible. </s>

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<s>In 1533 he published <emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus,<emph.end type="italics"/> through Froben, <lb/>this being a discussion of Roman and Greek weights and measures. </s>

<s>At <lb/>about this time he began <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/>—not to be published for <lb/>twenty-five years.<lb/><lb/><lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/011.jpg" pagenum="vii"/>

<s>Agricola did not confine his interest entirely to medicine and mining, <lb/>for during this period he composed a pamphlet upon the Turks, urging their <lb/>extermination by the European powers. </s>

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<s>Another work, <emph type="italics"/>De Animantíbus Subterraneis,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>usually published with <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> is dated 1548 in the preface. </s>

<s>It <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/012.jpg" pagenum="viii"/>is devoted to animals which live underground, at least part of the time, but <lb/>is not a very effective basis of either geologic or zoologic classi<lb/>fication. </s>

<s>It <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="viii"/>is devoted to animals which live underground, at least part of the time, but <lb/>is not a very effective basis of either geologic or zoologic classi<lb/>fication. </s>

<s>Despite many public activities, Agricola apparently completed <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> in 1550, but did not send it to the press until 1553; nor <lb/>did it appear until a year after his death in 1555. But we give further details <lb/>on the preparation of this work on p. </s>

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<s>Albert the Brave, the younger brother and Duke of Saxony, obtained <lb/>the subordinate portion, embracing Meissen, but subject to the Elector. <lb/></s>

<s>The Elector Ernest was succeeded in 1486 by Frederick the Wise, and under <pb xlink:href="002/01/013.jpg" pagenum="ix"/>his support Luther made Saxony the cradle of the Reformation. </s>

<s>The Elector Ernest was succeeded in 1486 by Frederick the Wise, and under <pb pagenum="ix"/>his support Luther made Saxony the cradle of the Reformation. </s>

<s>This <lb/>Elector was succeeded in 1525 by his brother John, who was in turn succeeded <lb/>by his son John Frederick in 1532. Of more immediate interest to this subject <lb/>is the Albertian line of Saxon Dukes who ruled Meissen, for in that Princi<lb/>pality Agricola was born and lived, and his political fortunes were associated <lb/>with this branch of the Saxon House. </s>

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<s>Duke Maurice presented to him a <lb/>house and plot in Chemnitz, and in a letter dated June 14th, 1543,<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> in con<lb/>nection therewith, says: “ . . . . that he may enjoy his life-long a <lb/>freehold house unburdened by all burgher rights and other municipal ser<lb/>vice, to be used by him and inhabited as a free dwelling, and that he may <lb/>also, for the necessities of his household and of his wife and servants, brew <lb/>his own beer free, and that he may likewise purvey for himself and his <lb/>household foreign beer and also wine for use, and yet he shall not sell any <lb/>such beer. . . . We have taken the said Doctor under our especial <lb/>protection and care for our life-long, and he shall not be summoned before <lb/>any Court of Justice, but only before us and our Councillor. . . .”</s>

<s>Agricola was made Burgomaster of Chemnitz in 1546. A letter<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> from <lb/>Fabricius to Meurer, dated May 19th, 1546, says that Agricola had been <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/014.jpg" pagenum="x"/>made Burgomaster by the command of the Prince. </s>

<s>Agricola was made Burgomaster of Chemnitz in 1546. A letter<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> from <lb/>Fabricius to Meurer, dated May 19th, 1546, says that Agricola had been <lb/><pb pagenum="x"/>made Burgomaster by the command of the Prince. </s>

<s>This would be Maurice, <lb/>and it is all the more a tribute to the high respect with which Agricola was <lb/>held, for, as said before, he was a consistent Catholic, and Maurice a Protestant <lb/>Prince. </s>

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<s>For he despised our Churches, and would not be with us in the <lb/>Communion of the Blood of Christ. </s>

<s>Therefore, after his death, at the <lb/>command of the Prince, which was given to the Church inspectors and <lb/>carried out by Tettelbach as a loyal servant, burial was refused him, and not <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/015.jpg" pagenum="xi"/>until the fourth day was he borne away to Zeitz and interred in the Cathedral. <lb/>. . . . I have always admired the genius of this man, so distinguished <lb/>in our sciences and in the whole realm of Philosophy—yet I wonder at his <lb/>religious views, which were compatible with reason, it is true, and were <lb/>dazzling, but were by no means compatible with truth. . . . He <lb/>would not tolerate with patience that anyone should discuss ecclesiastical <lb/>matters with him.” This action of the authorities in denying burial to one <lb/>of their most honored citizens, who had been ever assiduous in furthering <lb/>the welfare of the community, seems strangely out of joint. </s>

<s>Therefore, after his death, at the <lb/>command of the Prince, which was given to the Church inspectors and <lb/>carried out by Tettelbach as a loyal servant, burial was refused him, and not <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="xi"/>until the fourth day was he borne away to Zeitz and interred in the Cathedral. <lb/>. . . . I have always admired the genius of this man, so distinguished <lb/>in our sciences and in the whole realm of Philosophy—yet I wonder at his <lb/>religious views, which were compatible with reason, it is true, and were <lb/>dazzling, but were by no means compatible with truth. . . . He <lb/>would not tolerate with patience that anyone should discuss ecclesiastical <lb/>matters with him.” This action of the authorities in denying burial to one <lb/>of their most honored citizens, who had been ever assiduous in furthering <lb/>the welfare of the community, seems strangely out of joint. </s>

<s>Further, the <lb/>Elector Augustus, although a Protestant Prince, was Agricola's warm friend, <lb/>as evidenced by his letter of but a few months before (see p. </s>

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<s>To deduce Georgius Agricola's character we need not search beyond the <lb/>discovery of his steadfast adherence to the religion of his fathers amid the <lb/>bitter storm of Protestantism around him, and need but to remember at the <lb/>same time that for twenty-five years he was entrusted with elective positions <lb/>of an increasingly important character in this same community. </s>

<s>No man <lb/>could have thus held the respect of his countrymen unless he were devoid of <lb/>bigotry and possessed of the highest sense of integrity, justice, humanity, <lb/>and patriotism.</s></subchap1><subchap1><pb xlink:href="002/01/016.jpg" pagenum="xii"/>

<s>AGRICOLA'S INTELLECTUAL ATTAINMENTS AND <lb/>POSITION IN SCIENCE.</s>

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<s>In giving an appreciation of Agricola's views here and throughout the <lb/>footnotes, we do not wish to convey to the reader that he was in all things <lb/>free from error and from the spirit of his times, or that his theories, constructed <lb/>long before the atomic theory, are of the clear-cut order which that <lb/>basic hypothesis has rendered possible to later scientific speculation in these <lb/>branches. </s>

<s>His statements are sometimes much confused, but we reiterate that <pb xlink:href="002/01/017.jpg" pagenum="xiii"/>their clarity is as crystal to mud in comparison with those of his predecessors— <lb/>and of most of his successors for over two hundred years. </s>

<s>His statements are sometimes much confused, but we reiterate that <pb pagenum="xiii"/>their clarity is as crystal to mud in comparison with those of his predecessors— <lb/>and of most of his successors for over two hundred years. </s>

<s>As an indication of <lb/>his grasp of some of the wider aspects of geological phenomena we reproduce, <lb/>in Appendix A, a passage from <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causís,<emph.end type="italics"/> which we believe to be the <lb/>first adequate declaration of the part played by erosion in mountain sculpture. <lb/></s>

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<s>Until Schlüter's <lb/>work nearly two centuries later, it was not excelled. </s>

<s>There is no measure by <lb/>which we may gauge the value of such a work to the men who followed in <lb/>this profession during centuries, nor the benefits enjoyed by humanity <lb/>through them.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/018.jpg" pagenum="xiv"/>

<s>That Agricola occupied a very considerable place in the great awakening of <lb/>learning will be disputed by none except by those who place the development <lb/>of science in rank far below religion, politics, literature, and art. </s>

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<s>Science is the base upon <lb/>which is reared the civilization of to-day, and while we give daily credit to all <lb/>those who toil in the superstructure, let none forget those men who laid its <lb/>first foundation stones. </s>

<s>One of the greatest of these was Georgius Agricola.</s><figure id="id.002.01.018.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/018/1.jpg"/></subchap1><subchap1><pb xlink:href="002/01/019.jpg" />

<s>One of the greatest of these was Georgius Agricola.</s><figure></figure><pb/>

<s>Agricola seems to have been engaged in the preparation of <emph type="italics"/>De Re <lb/>Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> for a period of over twenty years, for we first hear of the book in a <lb/>letter from Petrus Plateanus, a schoolmaster at Joachimsthal, to the great <lb/>humanist, Erasmus,<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/> in September, 1529. He says: “The scientific world <lb/>will be still more indebted to Agricola when he brings to light the books <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> and other matters which he has on hand.” In the dedication <lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus<emph.end type="italics"/> (in 1533) Agricola states that he means to <lb/>publish twelve books <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> if he lives. </s>

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<s>Thus you will fulfil our <lb/>gracious behest.” The German translation was prepared by Philip Bechius, <lb/>a Basel University Professor of Medicine and Philosophy. </s>

<s>It is a wretched <lb/>work, by one who knew nothing of the science, and who more especially had no <lb/>appreciation of the peculiar Latin terms coined by Agricola, most of which<lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/020.jpg" />

<s>GEORGII AGRICOLAE</s>

<s>DE RE METALLICA LIBRI XII<28> QVI-</s>

<s>bus Officia, In&longs;trumenta, Machinæ, acomnia denique ad Metalli<lb/>tam &longs;pectantia, non modo luculenti&longs;&longs;imè de&longs;cribuntur, &longs;ed & per <lb/>effigies, &longs;uis locis in&longs;ertas, adiunctis Latinis, Germanicis&queacute; appel<lb/>lationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non po&longs;&longs;int.</s>

<s>BIVSDEM</s>

<s>DE ANIMANTIBVS SVBTERRANEIS Liber, ab Autore re<lb/>cognitus:cum Indicibus diuer&longs;is, quicquid in opere tractatum e&longs;t, <lb/>pulchrè demon&longs;trantibus.</s><figure></figure>

<s>BASILEAE M<28> D<28> LVI<28></s>

<s>Cum Priuilegio Imperatoris in annos v. <lb/></s>

<s>& Galliarum Regis ad Sexennium.</s><pb pagenum="xvi"/>

<s>he rendered literally. </s>

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<s>The following are the short titles of the various editions of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>together with the name and place of the publisher:—</s>

<s>LATIN EDITIONS.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table1"></arrow.to.target></s><table><table.target id="table1"></table.target><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben .. ..</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1556.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben .. ..</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1561.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Ludwig König</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1621.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Emanuel König</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1657.</cell></row></table>

<s>In addition to these, Leupold,<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/> Schmid,<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> and others mention an octavo <lb/>edition, without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have not been able to <lb/>find a copy of this edition, and are not certain of its existence. </s>

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<s>However, a portion of the accounts of <lb/>the firm of Froben were published in 1881<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/>, and therein is an entry under <lb/>March, 1560, of a sum to one Leodigaris Grymaldo for some other work, and <lb/>also for “correction of Agricola's <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> in French.” This may <lb/>of course, be an error for the Italian edition, which appeared a little later. <lb/></s>

<s>There is also mention<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> that a manuscript of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> in Spanish was <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/021.jpg" pagenum="xvii"/>seen in the library of the town of Bejar. </s>

<s>There is also mention<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> that a manuscript of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> in Spanish was <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="xvii"/>seen in the library of the town of Bejar. </s>

<s>An interesting note appears in <lb/>the glossary given by Sir John Pettus in his translation of Lazarus Erckern's <lb/>work on assaying. </s>

<s>He says<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/> “but I cannot enlarge my observations upon <lb/>any more words, because the printer calls for what I did write of a metallick <lb/>dictionary, after I first proposed the printing of Erckern, but intending <lb/>within the compass of a year to publish Georgius Agricola, <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>(being fully translated) in English, and also to add a dictionary to it, I <lb/>shall reserve my remaining essays (if what I have done hitherto be approved) <lb/>till then, and so I proceed in the dictionary.” The translation was never <lb/>published and extensive inquiry in various libraries and among the family <lb/>of Pettus has failed to yield any trace of the manuscript.<lb/></s><figure id="id.002.01.021.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/021/1.jpg"/>

<s>GEORGII AGRICOLAE</s>

<s>DE RE METALLICA LIBRI XII<28> QVI-</s>

<s>bus Officia, In&longs;trumenta, Machinæ, acomnia denique ad Metalli<lb/>tam &longs;pectantia, non modo luculenti&longs;&longs;imè de&longs;cribuntur, &longs;ed & per <lb/>effigies, &longs;uis locis in&longs;ertas, adiunctis Latinis, Germanicis&queacute;queacute; appel<lb/>lationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non po&longs;&longs;int.</s>

<s>BIVSDEM</s>

<s>BASILEAE M<28> D<28> LVI<28></s>

<s>Cum Priuilegio Imperatoris in annos v. <lb/></s>

<s>& Galliarum Regis ad Sexennium.</s>

<s>GEORGIVS FABRICIVS IN LI-</s>

<s>bros Metallicos GEORGII AGRICOL AE phi<lb/>lo&longs;ophi præ&longs;tanti&longs;&longs;imi.</s>

<s>bros Metallicos GEORGII AGRICOL AE phi<gap/><lb/>lo&longs;ophi præ&longs;tanti&longs;&longs;imi.</s>

<s>AD LECTOREM.</s>

<s>Siiuuat ignita cogno&longs;cere fronte Chimæram, <lb/>Semicanem nympham, &longs;emibouem&queacute;queacute; uirum:</s>

<s>Siiuuat ignita cogno&longs;cere fronte Chimæram, <lb/>Semicanem nympham, &longs;emibouem&queacute; uirum:</s>

<s>Sicentum capitum Titanem, tot&queacute;queacute; ferentem <lb/>Sublimem manibus tela cruenta Gygen:</s>

<s>Sicentum capitum Titanem, tot&queacute; ferentem <lb/>Sublimem manibus tela cruenta Gygen:</s>

<s>Siiuuat Ætneum penetrare Cyclopis in antrum, <lb/>Atque alios, Vates quos peperere, metus:</s>

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<s>Non hic uana tenet &longs;u&longs;pen&longs;am fabula mentem: <lb/>Sed precium, utilitas multa, legentis erit.</s>

<s>Quidquid terra &longs;inu, gremio&queacute;queacute; recondiditimo, <lb/>Omne tibi multis eruit ante libris:</s>

<s>Quidquid terra &longs;inu, gremio&queacute; recondiditimo, <lb/>Omne tibi multis eruit ante libris:</s>

<s>Siue fluens &longs;uperas ultro nitatur in oras, <lb/>Inueniat facilem &longs;eu magis arte uiam.</s>

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<s>Terrifico aura foras erumpens, incita motu, <lb/>Sæpefacit montes, antè ubi plana uia e&longs;t.</s>

<s>Hæcab&longs;tru&longs;a cauis, imo&queacute;queacute; incognita fundo, <lb/>Cognita natura &longs;æpe fuere duce.</s>

<s>Hæcab&longs;tru&longs;a cauis, imo&queacute; incognita fundo, <lb/>Cognita natura &longs;æpe fuere duce.</s>

<s>Arte hominum, in lucem ueniunt quoque multa, manu&queacute;queacute; <lb/>Terræ multiplices effodiuntur opes.</s>

<s>Arte hominum, in lucem ueniunt quoque multa, manu&queacute; <lb/>Terræ multiplices effodiuntur opes.</s>

<s>Lydia &longs;icnitrum profert, Islandia &longs;ulfur, <lb/>Acmodò Tyrrhenus mittit alumen ager.</s>

<s>Succina, quâ trifi do &longs;ubit æquor Vi&longs;tula cornu, <lb/>Pi&longs;cantur Codano corpora &longs;erua &longs;inu.</s>

<s>Quid memorem regum precio&longs;a in&longs;ignia gemmas, <lb/>Marmora&queacute;queacute; excel&longs;is &longs;tructa &longs;ub a&longs;tra iugis?</s>

<s>Quid memorem regum precio&longs;a in&longs;ignia gemmas, <lb/>Marmora&queacute; excel&longs;is &longs;tructa &longs;ub a&longs;tra iugis?</s>

<s>Nil lapides, nil &longs;axa moror: &longs;unt pulchra metalia, <lb/>Cr&oelig;fetuis opibus clara, Myda&queacute;queacute; tuis,</s>

<s>Nil lapides, nil &longs;axa moror: &longs;unt pulchra metalia, <lb/>Cr&oelig;fetuis opibus clara, Myda&queacute; tuis,</s>

<s>Quæ&queacute;queacute; acer Macedo terra Creneide fodit, <lb/>Nomine permutans nomina pri&longs;ca &longs;uo.</s>

<s>Quæ&queacute; acer Macedo terra Creneide fodit, <lb/>Nomine permutans nomina pri&longs;ca &longs;uo.</s>

<s>Atnuncnon ullis cedit GERMANIA terris, <pb xlink:href="002/01/026.jpg" pagenum="xxii"/>Terra ferax hominum, terra&queacute;queacute; diues opum.</s>

<s>Atnuncnon ullis cedit GERMANIA terris, <pb pagenum="xxii"/>Terra ferax hominum, terra&queacute; diues opum.</s>

<s>Hic auri in uenis locupletibus aura refulget, <lb/>Non alio me&longs;&longs;is carior ulla loco.</s>

<s>Auricomum extulerit felix Campania ramum, <lb/>Nec fructu nobis de&longs;iciente cadit.</s>

<s>Eruit argenti &longs;olidas hoc tempore ma&longs;&longs;as <lb/>Fo&longs;&longs;or, dc proprijs arma&queacute;queacute; miles agris.</s>

<s>Eruit argenti &longs;olidas hoc tempore ma&longs;&longs;as <lb/>Fo&longs;&longs;or, dc proprijs arma&queacute; miles agris.</s>

<s>Ignotum Graijs e&longs;t He&longs;perijs&queacute;queacute; metallum, <lb/>Quod Bi&longs;emutum lingua paterna uocat.</s>

<s>Ignotum Graijs e&longs;t He&longs;perijs&queacute; metallum, <lb/>Quod Bi&longs;emutum lingua paterna uocat.</s>

<s>Candidius nigro, &longs;ed plumbo nigrius albo, <lb/>No&longs;tra quoque hoc uena diuite fundit humus.</s>

<s>Funditur in tormenta, corus cum imitantia fulmen, <lb/>Æs, in&queacute;queacute; ho&longs;tiles ferrea ma&longs;&longs;a domos.</s>

<s>Funditur in tormenta, corus cum imitantia fulmen, <lb/>Æs, in&queacute; ho&longs;tiles ferrea ma&longs;&longs;a domos.</s>

<s>Scribuntur plumbo libri: quis credidit antè <lb/>Quàm mirandam artem Teutonis ora dedit?</s>

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<s>Vtilitas &longs;equitur cultorem: crede, uoluptas <lb/>Non iucunda minor, rara legentis, erit.</s>

<s>Iudicio&queacute;queacute; prius ne quis malè damnet iniquo, <lb/>Quæ &longs;unt auctoris munera mira Dei:</s>

<s>Iudicio&queacute; prius ne quis malè damnet iniquo, <lb/>Quæ &longs;unt auctoris munera mira Dei:</s>

<s>Eripit ip&longs;e &longs;uis primùm tela ho&longs;tibus, in&queacute;queacute; <lb/>Mittentis torquet &longs;picula rapta caput.</s>

<s>Eripit ip&longs;e &longs;uis primùm tela ho&longs;tibus, in&queacute; <lb/>Mittentis torquet &longs;picula rapta caput.</s>

<s>Fertur equo latro, uehitur pirata triremi: <lb/>Ergo necandus equus, nec fabricanda ratis?</s>

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<s>Se non in prærupta metallicus abijcit audax, <lb/>Vt quondam immi&longs;&longs;o Curtius acer equo:</s>

<s>Sed prius edi&longs;cit, quæ &longs;unt no&longs;cenda perito, <lb/>Quod&queacute;queacute; facit, multa doctus ab arte facit.</s>

<s>Sed prius edi&longs;cit, quæ &longs;unt no&longs;cenda perito, <lb/>Quod&queacute; facit, multa doctus ab arte facit.</s>

<s>Vt&queacute;queacute; gubernator &longs;eruat cum &longs;idere uentos: <lb/>Sic minimè dubijs utitur ille notis.</s>

<s>Vt&queacute; gubernator &longs;eruat cum &longs;idere uentos: <lb/>Sic minimè dubijs utitur ille notis.</s>

<s>Ia&longs;ides nauim, currus regit arte Meti&longs;cus: <lb/>Fo&longs;&longs;or opus peragit nec minus arte &longs;uum.</s>

<s>Indagat uenæ &longs;pacium, numerum&queacute;queacute;, modum&queacute;queacute;, <lb/>Siue obliqua &longs;uum, rectaúe tendatiter.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/027.jpg" pagenum="xxiii"/>

<s>Indagat uenæ &longs;pacium, numerum&queacute;, modum&queacute;, <lb/>Siue obliqua &longs;uum, rectaúe tendatiter.</s><pb pagenum="xxiii"/>

<s>Pa&longs;tor ut explorat quæ terra &longs;it apta colenti, <lb/>Quæ bene lanigeras, quæ malè pa&longs;cat oucs.</s>

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<s>Fungitur officio iam Ptolemæe tuo.</s>

<s>Vt&queacute;queacute; &longs;uæ inuenit men&longs;uram iura&queacute;queacute; uenæ, <lb/>In uarios operas diuidit ind e uiros.</s>

<s>Vt&queacute; &longs;uæ inuenit men&longs;uram iura&queacute; uenæ, <lb/>In uarios operas diuidit ind e uiros.</s>

<s>Iam&queacute;queacute; aggre&longs;&longs;us opus, uiden' ut mouet omne quod ob&longs;tat, <lb/>A&longs;&longs;idua ut uer&longs;at &longs;trenuus arma manu?</s>

<s>Iam&queacute; aggre&longs;&longs;us opus, uiden' ut mouet omne quod ob&longs;tat, <lb/>A&longs;&longs;idua ut uer&longs;at &longs;trenuus arma manu?</s>

<s>Ne tibi &longs;urde&longs;cant ferri tinnitibus aures, <lb/>Ad grauiora ideo con&longs;picienda ueni.</s>

<s>In&longs;truit ecce &longs;uis nunc artibus ille minores: <lb/>Sedulitas nulli non opero&longs;a loco.</s>

<s>Metiri docet hic uenæ &longs;pacium&queacute;queacute; modum&queacute;queacute;, <lb/>Vt&queacute;queacute; regat po&longs;itis &longs;inibus arua lapis,</s>

<s>Metiri docet hic uenæ &longs;pacium&queacute; modum&queacute;, <lb/>Vt&queacute; regat po&longs;itis &longs;inibus arua lapis,</s>

<s>Ne quis transmi&longs;&longs;o uiolentus limite pergens, <lb/>Non &longs;ibi conce&longs;&longs;as, in &longs;ua uertat, opes.</s>

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<s>Seu flammis iterum modicis torrere nece&longs;&longs;e e&longs;t, <lb/>Excoquere aut fa&longs;tis ignibus omne malum,</s>

<s>Cùm fluit æs riuis, auri argenti&queacute;queacute; metallum, <lb/>Spes animo fo&longs;&longs;or uix capit ip&longs;e &longs;uas.</s>

<s>Cùm fluit æs riuis, auri argenti&queacute; metallum, <lb/>Spes animo fo&longs;&longs;or uix capit ip&longs;e &longs;uas.</s>

<s>Argentum cupidus fuluo &longs;ecernit ab auro, <lb/>Et plumbi lentam demit utrique moram.</s>

<s>Separat argentum, lucri &longs;tudio&longs;us, ab ære, <lb/>Seruatis, linquens deteriora, bonis.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/028.jpg" pagenum="xxiv"/>

<s>Separat argentum, lucri &longs;tudio&longs;us, ab ære, <lb/>Seruatis, linquens deteriora, bonis.</s><pb pagenum="xxiv"/>

<s>Quæ &longs;i cuncta uelim tenui percurrere uer&longs;u, <lb/>Ante alium reuehat Memnonis orta diem.</s>

<s>Quæ &longs;i cuncta uelim tenui percurrere uer&longs;u, <lb/>Ante alium reuehat Memnonis o<gap/>ra diem.</s>

<s>Po&longs;tremus labor e&longs;t, concretos di&longs;cere&longs;uccos, <lb/>Quos fert innumeris Teutona terra locis.</s>

<s>Quo &longs;al, quo nitrum, quo pacto fiat alumen, <lb/>V&longs;ibus arti&longs;icis cùm parat illa manus:</s>

<s>Necnon chalcantum, &longs;ulfur, fluidumque bitumen, <lb/>Ma&longs;&longs;a&queacute;queacute; quo uitri lenta dolanda modo.</s>

<s>Necnon chalcantum, &longs;ulfur, fluidumque bitumen, <lb/>Ma&longs;&longs;a&queacute; quo uitri lenta dolanda modo.</s>

<s>Su&longs;cipit hæc hominum mirandos cura labores, <lb/>Pauperiem u&longs;queadeo ferre famem&queacute;queacute; graue e&longs;t,</s>

<s>Su&longs;cipit hæc hominum mirandos cura labores, <lb/>Pauperiem u&longs;queadeo ferre famem&queacute; graue e&longs;t,</s>

<s>Tantus amor uictum paruis extundere natis, <lb/>Et patriæ ciuem non dare uelle malum.</s>

<s>Nec manet in terræ fo&longs;&longs;oris mer&longs;a latebris <lb/>Mens, &longs;ed fert domino uota preces&queacute;queacute; Deo.</s>

<s>Nec manet in terræ fo&longs;&longs;oris mer&longs;a latebris <lb/>Mens, &longs;ed fert domino uota preces&queacute; Deo.</s>

<s>Munificæ expectat, &longs;pe plenus, munera dextræ, <lb/>Extollens animum lætus ad a&longs;tra &longs;uum.</s>

<s>Diuitias CHRISTVS dat noticiam&queacute;queacute; fruendi, <lb/>Cui memori grates pectore &longs;emper agit.</s>

<s>Diuitias CHRISTVS dat noticiam&queacute; fruendi, <lb/>Cui memori grates pectore &longs;emper agit.</s>

<s>Hoc quoque laudati quondam fecere Philippi, <lb/>Qui uirtutis habent cum pietate decus.</s>

<s>Huc oculos, huc flecte animum, &longs;uaui&longs;&longs;ime Lector, <lb/>Auctorem&queacute;queacute; pia no&longs;cito mente Deum.</s>

<s>Huc oculos, huc flecte animum, &longs;uaui&longs;&longs;ime Lector, <lb/>Auctorem&queacute; pia no&longs;cito mente Deum.</s>

<s>AGRICOLAE hinc optans opero&longs;o fau&longs;ta labori, <lb/>Laudibus eximij candidus e&longs;to uiri.</s>

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<s>A “free” translation of the last <lb/>few lines indicates its complimentary character:—</s>

<s>“He doth raise his country's fame with his own <lb/>And in the mouths of nations yet unborn <lb/>His praises shall be sung; Death comes to all <lb/>But great achievements raise a monument <lb/>Which shall endure until the sun grows cold.”</s></chap><chap><pb xlink:href="002/01/029.jpg" />

<s>TO THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS <lb/>AND MOST MIGHTY DUKES OF <lb/>Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Margraves of Meissen, <lb/>Imperial Overlords of Saxony, Burgraves of Altenberg <lb/>and Magdeburg, Counts of Brena, Lords of <lb/>Pleissnerland, To MAURICE Grand Marshall <lb/>and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire <lb/>and to his brother AUGUSTUS,<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

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<s>Besides, of all ways whereby great wealth is acquired by good and <lb/>honest means, none is more advantageous than mining; for although from <lb/>fields which are well tilled (not to mention other things) we derive rich yields, <lb/>yet we obtain richer products from mines; in fact, one mine is often much <lb/>more beneficial to us than many fields. </s>

<s>For this reason we learn from the <lb/>history of nearly all ages that very many men have been made rich by the <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/030.jpg" pagenum="xxvi"/>mines, and the fortunes of many kings have been much amplified there<lb/>by. </s>

<s>For this reason we learn from the <lb/>history of nearly all ages that very many men have been made rich by the <lb/><pb pagenum="xxvi"/>mines, and the fortunes of many kings have been much amplified there<lb/>by. </s>

<s>But I will not now speak more of these matters, because I have <lb/>dealt with these subjects partly in the first book of this work, and partly in <lb/>the other work entitled <emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"/> where I have refuted <lb/>the charges which have been made against metals and against miners. <lb/></s>

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<s>Also among the authors I must include the modern <lb/>writers, whosoever they are, for no one should escape just condemnation <lb/>who fails to award due recognition to persons whose writings he uses, even <lb/>very slightly. </s>

<s>Two books have been written in our tongue; the one on the <lb/>assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author <lb/>is unknown<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>; the other “On Veins,” of which Pandulfus Anglus<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> is also <lb/>said to have written, although the German book was written by Calbus of <lb/>Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/031.jpg" pagenum="xxvii"/>he had begun.<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> Recently Vannucci Biringuccio, of Sienna, a wise man <lb/>experienced in many matters, wrote in vernacular Italian on the <lb/>subject of the melting, separating, and alloying of metals.<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> He <lb/>touched briefly on the methods of smelting certain ores, and explained <lb/>more fully the methods of making certain juices; by reading his <lb/>directions, I have refreshed my memory of those things which I myself <lb/>saw in Italy; as for many matters on which I write, he did not touch upon <lb/>them at all, or touched but lightly. </s>

<s>Two books have been written in our tongue; the one on the <lb/>assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author <lb/>is unknown<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>; the other “On Veins,” of which Pandulfus Anglus<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> is also <lb/>said to have written, although the German book was written by Calbus of <lb/>Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="xxvii"/>he had begun.<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> Recently Vannucci Biringuccio, of Sienna, a wise man <lb/>experienced in many matters, wrote in vernacular Italian on the <lb/>subject of the melting, separating, and alloying of metals.<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> He <lb/>touched briefly on the methods of smelting certain ores, and explained <lb/>more fully the methods of making certain juices; by reading his <lb/>directions, I have refreshed my memory of those things which I myself <lb/>saw in Italy; as for many matters on which I write, he did not touch upon <lb/>them at all, or touched but lightly. </s>

<s>This book was given me by Franciscus <lb/>Badoarius, a Patrician of Venice, and a man of wisdom and of repute; this <lb/>he had promised that he would do, when in the previous year he was at <lb/>Marienberg, having been sent by the Venetians as an Ambassador to King <lb/>Ferdinand. </s>

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<s>Thus Osthanes has written on <foreign lang="greek">xumeutika/;</foreign> and there are Hermes; <lb/>Chanes; Zosimus, the Alexandrian, to his sister Theosebia; Olympiodorus, <lb/>also an Alexandrian; Agathodæmon; Democritus, not the one of Abdera, <lb/>but some other whom I know not; Orus Chrysorichites, Pebichius, Comerius, <lb/>Joannes, Apulejus, Petasius, Pelagius, Africanus, Theophilus, Synesius, <lb/>Stephanus to Heracleus Cæsar, Heliodorus to Theodosius, Geber, Callides <lb/>Rachaidibus, Veradianus, Rodianus, Canides, Merlin, Raymond Lully, <lb/>Arnold de Villa Nova, and Augustinus Pantheus of Venice; and three women, <lb/>Cleopatra, the maiden Taphnutia, and Maria the Jewess.<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> All these alchemists <lb/>employ obscure language, and Johanes Aurelius Augurellus of Rimini, <lb/>alone has used the language of poetry. </s>

<s>There are many other books on <lb/><lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/032.jpg" pagenum="xxviii"/>this subject, but all are difficult to follow, because the writers upon these <lb/>things use strange names, which do not properly belong to the metals, and <lb/>because some of them employ now one name and now another, invented by <lb/>themselves, though the thing itself changes not. </s>

<s>There are many other books on <lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="xxviii"/>this subject, but all are difficult to follow, because the writers upon these <lb/>things use strange names, which do not properly belong to the metals, and <lb/>because some of them employ now one name and now another, invented by <lb/>themselves, though the thing itself changes not. </s>

<s>These masters teach their <lb/>disciples that the base metals, when smelted, are broken up; also they teach <lb/>the methods by which they reduce them to the primary parts and <lb/>remove whatever is superfluous in them, and by supplying what is <lb/>wanted make out of them the precious metals—that is, gold and silver,— <lb/>all of which they carry out in a crucible. </s>

<s>Whether they can do these things <lb/>or not I cannot decide; but, seeing that so many writers assure us with all <lb/>earnestness that they have reached that goal for which they aimed, it would <lb/>seem that faith might be placed in them; yet also seeing that we do not <lb/>read of any of them ever having become rich by this art, nor do we now see <lb/>them growing rich, although so many nations everywhere have produced, and <lb/>are producing, alchemists, and all of them are straining every nerve night and <lb/>day to the end that they may heap a great quantity of gold and silver, I should <lb/>say the matter is dubious. </s>

<s>But although it may be due to the carelessness <lb/>of the writers that they have not transmitted to us the names of the masters <lb/>who acquired great wealth through this occupation, certainly it is clear that <lb/>their disciples either do not understand their precepts or, if they do under<lb/>stand them, do not follow them; for if they do comprehend them, seeing that <lb/>these disciples have been and are so numerous, they would have by to-day filled <pb xlink:href="002/01/033.jpg" pagenum="xxix"/>whole towns with gold and silver. </s>

<s>But although it may be due to the carelessness <lb/>of the writers that they have not transmitted to us the names of the masters <lb/>who acquired great wealth through this occupation, certainly it is clear that <lb/>their disciples either do not understand their precepts or, if they do under<lb/>stand them, do not follow them; for if they do comprehend them, seeing that <lb/>these disciples have been and are so numerous, they would have by to-day filled <pb pagenum="xxix"/>whole towns with gold and silver. </s>

<s>Even their books proclaim their vanity, for <lb/>they inscribe in them the names of Plato and Aristotle and other philosophers, <lb/>in order that such high-sounding inscriptions may impose upon simple people <lb/>and pass for learning. </s>

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<s>Since no authors have written of this art in its entirety, and since <lb/>foreign nations and races do not understand our tongue, and, if they did <lb/>understand it, would be able to learn only a small part of the art through the <lb/>works of those authors whom we do possess, I have written these twelve books <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Of these, the first book contains the arguments which may <lb/>be used against this art, and against metals and the mines, and what can be <lb/>said in their favour. </s>

<s>The second book describes the miner, and branches into <pb xlink:href="002/01/034.jpg" pagenum="xxx"/>a discourse on the finding of veins. </s>

<s>The second book describes the miner, and branches into <pb pagenum="xxx"/>a discourse on the finding of veins. </s>

<s>The third book deals with veins and <lb/>stringers, and seams in the rocks. </s>

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<s>Although I have not fulfilled the task which I have undertaken, on account <lb/>of the great magnitude of the subject, I have, at all events, endeavoured to fulfil <lb/>it, for I have devoted much labour and care, and have even gone to some <lb/>expense upon it; for with regard to the veins, tools, vessels, sluices, machines, <lb/>and furnaces, I have not only described them, but have also hired illustrators <lb/>to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed by words <lb/>should either not be understood by men of our own times, or should cause <lb/>difficulty to posterity, in the same way as to us difficulty is often caused by <lb/>many names which the Ancients (because such words were familiar to all of <lb/>them) have handed down to us without any explanation.</s>

<s>I have omitted all those things which I have not myself seen, or have <pb xlink:href="002/01/035.jpg" pagenum="xxxi"/>not read or heard of from persons upon whom I can rely. </s>

<s>I have omitted all those things which I have not myself seen, or have <pb pagenum="xxxi"/>not read or heard of from persons upon whom I can rely. </s>

<s>That which I have <lb/>neither seen, nor carefully considered after reading or hearing of, I have not <lb/>written about. </s>

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<s><emph type="italics"/>Chemnitz, Saxony,<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>December First,<emph.end type="italics"/> 1550.<lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/036.jpg" /></chap><chap><pb xlink:href="002/01/037.jpg" />

<s><emph type="italics"/>December First,<emph.end type="italics"/> 1550.<lb/></s><pb/>

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<s>Then he must be thoroughly <lb/>familiar with the many and varied species of earths, juices<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>, gems, <lb/>stones, marbles, rocks, metals, and compounds<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>He must also have a <lb/><lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/038.jpg" pagenum="2"/>complete knowledge of the method of making all underground works.<lb/>Lastly, there are the various systems of assaying<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> substances and of<lb/>preparing them for smelting; and here again there are many altogether<lb/>diverse methods. </s>

<s>He must also have a <lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="2"/>complete knowledge of the method of making all underground works<gap/><lb/>Lastly, there are the various systems of assaying<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> substances and o<gap/><lb/>preparing them for smelting; and here again there are many altogether<gap/><lb/>diverse methods. </s>

<s>For there is one method for gold and silver, another<lb/>for copper, another for quicksilver, another for iron, another for lead, and<pb xlink:href="002/01/039.jpg" pagenum="3"/>even tin and bismuth<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> are treated differently from lead. </s>

<s>For there is one method for gold and silver, another<gap/><lb/>for copper, another for quicksilver, another for iron, another for lead, and<gap/><pb pagenum="3"/>even tin and bismuth<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> are treated differently from lead. </s>

<s>Although the <lb/>evaporation of juices is an art apparently quite distinct from metallurgy, <lb/>yet they ought not to be considered separately, inasmuch as these juices <lb/>are also often dug out of the ground solidified, or they are produced from <lb/>certain kinds of earth and stones which the miners dig up, and some of the <lb/>juices are not themselves devoid of metals. </s>

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<s>First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the origin, <lb/>cause, and nature of subterranean things; for then he will be able to dig <lb/>out the veins easily and advantageously, and to obtain more abundant results <lb/>from his mining. </s>

<s>Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to look <lb/>after his diggers and other workmen, that they do not meet with those <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/040.jpg" pagenum="4"/>diseases to which they are more liable than workmen in other occupations, <lb/>or if they do meet with them, that he himself may be able to heal them or <lb/>may see that the doctors do so. </s>

<s>Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to look <lb/>after his diggers and other workmen, that they do not meet with those <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="4"/>diseases to which they are more liable than workmen in other occupations, <lb/>or if they do meet with them, that he himself may be able to heal them or <lb/>may see that the doctors do so. </s>

<s>Thirdly follows Astronomy, that he may <lb/>know the divisions of the heavens and from them judge the direction of <lb/>the veins. </s>

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<s>So I may begin with the question of utility, which is a two-fold one, <lb/>for either it may be asked whether the art of mining is really profitable or <lb/>not to those who are engaged in it, or whether it is useful or not to the rest <lb/>of mankind. </s>

<s>Those who think mining of no advantage to the men who follow <lb/>the occupation assert, first, that scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals or <lb/>other such things derive profit therefrom; and again, that miners, because they <lb/>entrust their certain and well-established wealth to dubious and slippery <lb/>fortune, generally deceive themselves, and as a result, impoverished by <pb xlink:href="002/01/041.jpg" pagenum="5"/>expenses and losses, in the end spend the most bitter and most miserable of <lb/>lives. </s>

<s>Those who think mining of no advantage to the men who follow <lb/>the occupation assert, first, that scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals or <lb/>other such things derive profit therefrom; and again, that miners, because they <lb/>entrust their certain and well-established wealth to dubious and slippery <lb/>fortune, generally deceive themselves, and as a result, impoverished by <pb pagenum="5"/>expenses and losses, in the end spend the most bitter and most miserable of <lb/>lives. </s>

<s>But persons who hold these views do not perceive how much a learned <lb/>and experienced miner differs from one ignorant and unskilled in the art. <lb/></s>

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<s>Some then say the profit <lb/>from an individual mine is unstable, as if forsooth, the miner is, or ought to <lb/>be dependent on only one mine, and as if many men do not bear in common <lb/>their expenses in mining, or as if one experienced in his art does not dig <lb/>another vein, if fortune does not amply respond to his prayers in the first <lb/>case. </s>

<s>The New Schönberg at Freiberg has remained stable beyond the <lb/>memory of man<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/042.jpg" pagenum="6"/>

<s>The New Schönberg at Freiberg has remained stable beyond the <lb/>memory of man<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s><pb pagenum="6"/>

<s>It is not my intention to detract anything from the dignity of agri<lb/>culture, and that the profits of mining are less stable I will always and readly <lb/>admit, for the veins do in time cease to yield metals, whereas the fields bring <lb/>lorth fruits every year. </s>

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<s>This admission they try to extort from us, <lb/>partly by arguments and examples, partly by misrepresentations and abuse of <lb/>us. </s>

<s>First, they make use of this argument: “The earth does not conceal <lb/>and remove from our eyes those things which are useful and necessary to <pb xlink:href="002/01/043.jpg" pagenum="7"/>mankind, but on the contrary, like a beneficent and kindly mother she yields <lb/>in large abundance from her bounty and brings into the light of day the <lb/>herbs, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and the trees. </s>

<s>First, they make use of this argument: “The earth does not conceal <lb/>and remove from our eyes those things which are useful and necessary to <pb pagenum="7"/>mankind, but on the contrary, like a beneficent and kindly mother she yields <lb/>in large abundance from her bounty and brings into the light of day the <lb/>herbs, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and the trees. </s>

<s>The minerals on the <lb/>other hand she buries far beneath in the depth of the ground; therefore, <lb/>they should not be sought. </s>

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<s>“Gold and silver are injurious to mortals; gold is the source of <lb/>crime, the plague of life, and the ruin of all things. </s>

<s>Would that thou <lb/>were not such an attractive scourge! because of thee arise robberies, <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/044.jpg" pagenum="8"/>homicides, warfare, brothers are maddened against brothers, and<lb/>children against parents.”</s>

<s>Would that thou <lb/>were not such an attractive scourge! because of thee arise robberies, <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="8"/>homicides, warfare, brothers are maddened against brothers, a<gap/><lb/>children against parents.”</s>

<s>This from Naumachius also pleases them:</s>

<s>“Gold and silver are but dust, like the stones that lie scattered on<lb/>the pebbly beach, or on the margins of the rivers.”</s>

<s>“Gold and silver are but dust, like the stones that lie scattered<gap/><lb/>the pebbly beach, or on the margins of the rivers.”</s>

<s>On the other hand, they censure these verses of Euripides:</s>

<s>“Plutus is the god for wise men: all else is mere folly and at the<lb/>same time a deception in words.”</s>

<s>“Plutus is the god for wise men: all else is mere folly and at t<gap/><lb/>same time a deception in words.”</s>

<s>So in like manner these lines from Theognis:</s>

<s>“O Plutus, thou most beautiful and placid god! whilst I have thee,<lb/>however bad I am, I can be regarded as good.”</s>

<s>“O Plutus, thou most beautiful and placid god! whilst I have th<gap/><lb/>however bad I am, I can be regarded as good.”</s>

<s>They also blame Aristodemus, the Spartan, for these words:</s>

<s>“Money makes the man; no one who is poor is either good or<lb/>honoured.”</s>

<s>“Money makes the man; no one who is poor is either good<gap/><lb/>honoured.”</s>

<s>And they rebuke these songs of Timocles:</s>

<s>“Money is the life and soul of mortal men. </s>

<s>He who has not<lb/>heaped up riches for himself wanders like a dead man amongst the/><lb/>living.”</s>

<s>He who has n<gap/><lb/>heaped up riches for himself wanders like a dead man amongst t<gap/><lb/>living.”</s>

<s>Finally, they blame Menander when he wrote:</s>

<s>“Epicharmus asserts that the gods are water, wind, fire, earth, sun,<lb/>and stars. </s>

<s>“Epicharmus asserts that the gods are water, wind, fire, earth, su<gap/><lb/>and stars. </s>

<s>But I am of opinion that the gods of any use to us are silver and gold; for if thou wilt set these up in thy house thou mayest seeek whatever thou wilt. </s>

<s>But I am of opinion that the gods of any use to us are silv<gap/><lb/>and gold; for if thou wilt set these up in thy house thou mayest se<gap/><lb/>whatever thou wilt. </s>

<s>All things will fall to thy lot; land, houses, slaves, silver-work; moreover friends, judges, and witnesses. </s>

<s>All things will fall to thy lot; land, houses, slav<gap/><lb/>silver-work; moreover friends, judges, and witnesses. </s>

<s>Only give freely,<lb/>for thus thou hast the gods to serve thee.”</s>

<s>Only give free<gap/><lb/>for thus thou hast the gods to serve thee.”</s>

<s>But besides this, the strongest argument of the detractors is that the<lb/>fields are devastated by mining operations, for which reason formerly<lb/>Italians were warned by law that no one should dig the earth for metals and<lb/>so injure their very fertile fields, their vineyards, and their olive groves.<lb/>Also they argue that the woods and groves are cut down, for there is need of<lb/>an endless amount of wood for timbers, machines, and the smelting of metals<lb/>And when the woods and groves are felled, then are exterminated the beasts<lb/>and birds, very many of which furnish a pleasant and agreeable food for man.<lb/>Further, when the ores are washed, the water which has been used poisons<lb/>the brooks and streams, and either destroys the fish or drives them away.<lb/>Therefore the inhabitants of these regions, on account of the devastation of<lb/>their fields, woods, groves, brooks and rivers, find great difficulty in procuring<lb/>the necessaries of life, and by reason of the destruction of the timber they<lb/>are forced to greater expense in erecting buildings. </s>

<s>But besides this, the strongest argument of the detractors is that t<gap/><lb/>fields are devastated by mining operations, for which reason forme<gap/><lb/>Italians were warned by law that no one should dig the earth for metals a<gap/><lb/>so injure their very fertile fields, their vineyards, and their olive grov<gap/><lb/>Also they argue that the woods and groves are cut down, for there is need<gap/><lb/>an endless amount of wood for timbers, machines, and the smelting of meta<gap/><lb/>And when the woods and groves are felled, then are exterminated the bea<gap/><lb/>and birds, very many of which furnish a pleasant and agreeable food for ma<gap/><lb/>Further, when the ores are washed, the water which has been used pois<gap/><lb/>the brooks and streams, and either destroys the fish or drives them awa<gap/><lb/>Therefore the inhabitants of these regions, on account of the devastation<gap/><lb/>their fields, woods, groves, brooks and rivers, find great difficulty in procur<gap/><lb/>the necessaries of life, and by reason of the destruction of the timber th<gap/><lb/>are forced to greater expense in erecting buildings. </s>

<s>Thus it is said, it is<lb/>clear to all that there is greater detriment from mining than the value of<lb/>the metals which the mining produces.</s>

<s>Thus it is said, it<gap/><lb/>clear to all that there is greater detriment from mining than the value<gap/><lb/>the metals which the mining produces.</s>

<s>So in fierce contention they clamour, showing by such examples as<lb/>follow that every great man has been content with virtue, and despised<lb/>metals. </s>

<s>So in fierce contention they clamour, showing by such examples<gap/><lb/>follow that every great man has been content with virtue, and despis<gap/><lb/>metals. </s>

<s>They praise Bias because he esteemed the metals merely<lb/>as fortune's playthings, not as his real wealth. </s>

<s>They praise Bias because he esteemed the metals mer<gap/><lb/>as fortune's playthings, not as his real wealth. </s>

<s>When his enemies had<lb/>captured his native Priene, and his fellow-citizens laden with precious things<pb xlink:href="002/01/045.jpg" pagenum="9"/>had betaken themselves to flight, he was asked by one, why he carried <lb/>away none of his goods with him, and he replied, “I carry all my possessions <lb/>with me.” And it is said that Socrates, having received twenty minae sent <lb/>to him by Aristippus, a grateful disciple, refused them and sent them back to <lb/>him by the command of his conscience. </s>

<s>When his enemies h<gap/><lb/>captured his native Priene, and his fellow-citizens laden with precious thin<gap/><pb pagenum="9"/>had betaken themselves to flight, he was asked by one, why he carried <lb/>away none of his goods with him, and he replied, “I carry all my possessions <lb/>with me.” And it is said that Socrates, having received twenty minae sent <lb/>to him by Aristippus, a grateful disciple, refused them and sent them back to <lb/>him by the command of his conscience. </s>

<s>Aristippus, following his example <lb/>in this matter, despised gold and regarded it as of no value. </s>

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<s>Gold, too, <lb/>was the cause of the downfall of Aesculapius, the great physician, who it was <lb/>believed was the son of Apollo. </s>

<s>Similarly Marcus Crassus, through his <lb/>eager desire for the gold of the Parthians, was completely overcome together <lb/>with his son and eleven legions, and became the jest of his enemies; for they <pb xlink:href="002/01/046.jpg" pagenum="10"/>poured liquid gold into the gaping mouth of the slain Crassus, saying: <lb/>“Thou hast thirsted for gold, therefore drink gold.”</s>

<s>Similarly Marcus Crassus, through his <lb/>eager desire for the gold of the Parthians, was completely overcome together <lb/>with his son and eleven legions, and became the jest of his enemies; for they <pb pagenum="10"/>poured liquid gold into the gaping mouth of the slain Crassus, saying: <lb/>“Thou hast thirsted for gold, therefore drink gold.”</s>

<s>But why need I cite here these many examples from history?<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/> It is <lb/>almost our daily experience to learn that, for the sake of obtaining gold and <lb/>silver, doors are burst open, walls are pierced, wretched travellers are struck <lb/>down by rapacious and cruel men born to theft, sacrilege, invasion, and <lb/>robbery. </s>

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<s>And very many vehemently praise the barter system which men used before <lb/>money was devised, and which even now obtains among certain simple <lb/>peoples.</s>

<s>And next they raise a great outcry against other metals, as iron, than <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/047.jpg" pagenum="11"/>which they say nothing more pernicious could have been brought into the <lb/>life of man. </s>

<s>And next they raise a great outcry against other metals, as iron, than <lb/><pb pagenum="11"/>which they say nothing more pernicious could have been brought into the <lb/>life of man. </s>

<s>For it is employed in making swords, javelins, spears, pikes, <lb/>arrows—weapons by which men are wounded, and which cause slaughter, <lb/>robbery, and wars. </s>

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<s>It is claimed too, that lead is a pestilential and noxious metal, for men <lb/>are punished by means of molten lead, as Horace describes in the ode <lb/>addressed to the Goddess Fortune: “Cruel Necessity ever goes before thee <lb/>bearing in her brazen hand the spikes and wedges, while the awful hook and <lb/>molten lead are also not lacking.”<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> In their desire to excite greater odium <lb/>for this metal, they are not silent about the leaden balls of muskets, and they <lb/>find in it the cause of wounds and death.</s>

<s>They contend that, inasmuch as Nature has concealed metals far within <lb/>the depths of the earth, and because they are not necessary to human life, <lb/>they are therefore despised and repudiated by the noblest, and should not be <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/048.jpg" pagenum="12"/>mined, and seeing that when brought to light they have always proved the <lb/>cause of very great evils, it follows that mining is not useful to mankind <lb/>but on the contrary harmful and destructive. </s>

<s>They contend that, inasmuch as Nature has concealed metals far within <lb/>the depths of the earth, and because they are not necessary to human life, <lb/>they are therefore despised and repudiated by the noblest, and should not be <lb/><pb pagenum="12"/>mined, and seeing that when brought to light they have always proved the <lb/>cause of very great evils, it follows that mining is not useful to mankind <lb/>but on the contrary harmful and destructive. </s>

<s>Several good men have <lb/>been so perturbed by these tragedies that they conceive an intensely bitter <lb/>hatred toward metals, and they wish absolutely that metals had never been <lb/>created, or being created, that no one had ever dug them out. </s>

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<s>For, though the produce of the land furnishes the greatest <lb/>abundance of food for the nourishment of our bodies, no labour can be <lb/>carried on and completed without tools. </s>

<s>The ground itself is turned up <lb/>with ploughshares and harrows, tough stalks and the tops of the roots are <lb/>broken off and dug up with a mattock, the sown seed is harrowed, the corn <pb xlink:href="002/01/049.jpg" pagenum="13"/>field is hoed and weeded; the ripe grain with part of the stalk is cut down <lb/>by scythes and threshed on the floor, or its ears are cut off and stored in the <lb/>barn and later beaten with flails and winnowed with fans, until finally the <lb/>pure grain is stored in the granary, whence it is brought forth again when <lb/>occasion demands or necessity arises. </s>

<s>The ground itself is turned up <lb/>with ploughshares and harrows, tough stalks and the tops of the roots are <lb/>broken off and dug up with a mattock, the sown seed is harrowed, the corn <pb pagenum="13"/>field is hoed and weeded; the ripe grain with part of the stalk is cut down <lb/>by scythes and threshed on the floor, or its ears are cut off and stored in the <lb/>barn and later beaten with flails and winnowed with fans, until finally the <lb/>pure grain is stored in the granary, whence it is brought forth again when <lb/>occasion demands or necessity arises. </s>

<s>Again, if we wish to procure better <lb/>and more productive fruits from trees and bushes, we must resort to <lb/>cultivating, pruning, and grafting, which cannot be done without tools. <lb/></s>

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<s>But has the artisan <lb/>or weaver of the cloth any instrument not made of iron? </s>

<s>Can one be made <pb xlink:href="002/01/050.jpg" pagenum="14"/>of wood without the aid of iron? </s>

<s>Can one be made <pb pagenum="14"/>of wood without the aid of iron? </s>

<s>The cloth or web must be cut into lengths <lb/>for the tailor. </s>

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<s>Socrates in truth did not despise gold, but would not <lb/>accept money for his teaching. </s>

<s>As for Aristippus of Cyrene, if he had gath<lb/>ered and saved the gold which he ordered his slaves to throw away, he might <pb xlink:href="002/01/051.jpg" pagenum="15"/>have bought the things which he needed for the necessaries of life, and he <lb/>would not. </s>

<s>As for Aristippus of Cyrene, if he had gath<lb/>ered and saved the gold which he ordered his slaves to throw away, he might <pb pagenum="15"/>have bought the things which he needed for the necessaries of life, and he <lb/>would not. </s>

<s>by reason of his poverty, have then been obliged to flatter the <lb/>tyrant Dionysius, nor would he ever have been called by him a King's dog. <lb/></s>

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<s>For with their gold they might <lb/>have bought things of which they were in need, or even given it to neigh<lb/>bouring peoples to bind them more closely to themselves with gifts and <lb/>favours. </s>

<s>Finally, the Scythians, by condemning the use of gold and silver <pb xlink:href="002/01/052.jpg" pagenum="16"/>alone, did not free themselves utterly from avarice, because although he is not <lb/>enjoying them, one who can possess other forms of property may also <lb/>become avaricious.</s>

<s>Finally, the Scythians, by condemning the use of gold and silver <pb pagenum="16"/>alone, did not free themselves utterly from avarice, because although he is not <lb/>enjoying them, one who can possess other forms of property may also <lb/>become avaricious.</s>

<s>Now let us reply to the attacks hurled against the products of mines. <lb/></s>

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<s>Similarly, too, if by means of gold and silver and gems men can overcome <lb/>the chastity of women, corrupt the honour of many people, bribe the course <lb/>of justice and commit innumerable wickednesses, it is not the metals which <lb/>are to be blamed, but the evil passions of men which become inflamed and <lb/>ignited; or it is due to the blind and impious desires of their minds. </s>

<s>But <pb xlink:href="002/01/053.jpg" pagenum="17"/>although these attacks against gold and silver may be directed especially <lb/>against money, yet inasmuch as the Poets one after another condemn it, <lb/>their criticism must be met, and this can be done by one argument alone. <lb/></s>

<s>But <pb pagenum="17"/>although these attacks against gold and silver may be directed especially <lb/>against money, yet inasmuch as the Poets one after another condemn it, <lb/>their criticism must be met, and this can be done by one argument alone. <lb/></s>

<s>Money is good for those who use it well; it brings loss and evil to those who <lb/>use it ill. </s>

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<s>Or <lb/>similarly, he may be tied to a beam and a heavy stone fastened by a <lb/>cord to his feet, or finally his limbs may be torn asunder. </s>

<s>From these <lb/>examples we see that it is not metals that are to be condemned, but our <lb/>vices, such as anger, cruelty, discord, passion for power, avarice, and lust.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/054.jpg" pagenum="18"/>

<s>The question next arises, whether we ought to count metals amongst <lb/>the number of good things or class them amongst the bad. </s>

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<s>If then a man, relying on his strength, toils hard to maintain <lb/>himself and his family in an honest and respectable manner, he uses the <lb/>gift aright, but if he makes a living out of murder and robbery, he uses it <lb/>wrongly. </s>

<s>Likewise, too, if a lovely woman is anxious to please her husband <pb xlink:href="002/01/055.jpg" pagenum="19"/>alone she uses her beauty aright, but if she lives wantonly and is a victim <lb/>of passion, she misuses her beauty. </s>

<s>Likewise, too, if a lovely woman is anxious to please her husband <pb pagenum="19"/>alone she uses her beauty aright, but if she lives wantonly and is a victim <lb/>of passion, she misuses her beauty. </s>

<s>In like manner, a youth who devotes <lb/>himself to learning and cultivates the liberal arts, uses his genius rightly. <lb/></s>

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<s>In very truth, even the works <lb/>of art, elegant, embellished, elaborate, useful, are fashioned in various shapes by <lb/>the artist from the metals gold, silver, brass, lead, and iron. </s>

<s>How few artists <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/056.jpg" pagenum="20"/>could make anything that is beautiful and perfect without using metals? </s>

<s>How few artists <lb/><pb pagenum="20"/>could make anything that is beautiful and perfect without using metals? </s>

<s>Even<lb/>if tools of iron or brass were not used, we could not make tools of wood and<lb/>stone without the help of metal. </s>

<s>Ev<gap/><lb/>if tools of iron or brass were not used, we could not make tools of wood a<gap/><lb/>stone without the help of metal. </s>

<s>From all these examples are evident the<lb/>benefits and advantages derived from metals. </s>

<s>From all these examples are evident t<gap/><lb/>benefits and advantages derived from metals. </s>

<s>We should not have had<lb/>these at all unless the science of mining and metallurgy had been discovered<lb/>and handed down to us. </s>

<s>We should not have ha<gap/><lb/>these at all unless the science of mining and metallurgy had been discovere<gap/><lb/>and handed down to us. </s>

<s>Who then does not understand how highly useful<lb/>they are, nay rather, how necessary to the human race? </s>

<s>Who then does not understand how highly usef<gap/><lb/>they are, nay rather, how necessary to the human race? </s>

<s>In a word, man<lb/>could not do without the mining industry, nor did Divine Providence will<lb/>that he should.</s>

<s>In a word, ma<gap/><lb/>could not do without the mining industry, nor did Divine Providence wi<gap/><lb/>that he should.</s>

<s>Further, it has been asked whether to work in metals is honourable<lb/>employment for respectable people or whether it is not degrading and<lb/>dishonourable. </s>

<s>Further, it has been asked whether to work in metals is honourab<gap/><lb/>employment for respectable people or whether it is not degrading an<gap/><lb/>dishonourable. </s>

<s>We ourselves count it amongst the honourable arts. </s>

<s>For<lb/>that art, the pursuit of which is unquestionably not impious, nor offensive,<lb/>nor mean, we may esteem honourable. </s>

<s>Fo<gap/><lb/>that art, the pursuit of which is unquestionably not impious, nor offensive<gap/><lb/>nor mean, we may esteem honourable. </s>

<s>That this is the nature of the<lb/>mining profession, inasmuch as it promotes wealth by good and honest<lb/>methods, we shall show presently. </s>

<s>That this is the nature of th<gap/><lb/>mining profession, inasmuch as it promotes wealth by good and hones<gap/><lb/>methods, we shall show presently. </s>

<s>With justice, therefore, we may class<lb/>it amongst honourable employments. </s>

<s>With justice, therefore, we may clas<gap/><lb/>it amongst honourable employments. </s>

<s>In the first place, the occupation<lb/>of the miner, which I must be allowed to compare with other methods of<lb/>acquiring great wealth, is just as noble as that of agriculture; for, as the<lb/>farmer, sowing his seed in his fields injures no one, however profitable they<lb/>may prove to him, so the miner digging for his metals, albeit he draws forth<lb/>great heaps of gold or silver, hurts thereby no mortal man. </s>

<s>In the first place, the occupatio<gap/><lb/>of the miner, which I must be allowed to compare with other methods o<gap/><lb/>acquiring great wealth, is just as noble as that of agriculture; for, as th<gap/><lb/>farmer, sowing his seed in his fields injures no one, however profitable they<gap/><lb/>may prove to him, so the miner digging for his metals, albeit he draws forth<gap/><lb/>great heaps of gold or silver, hurts thereby no mortal man. </s>

<s>Certainly these<lb/>two modes of increasing wealth are in the highest degree both noble and<lb/>honourable. </s>

<s>Certainly these<gap/><lb/>two modes of increasing wealth are in the highest degree both noble and<gap/><lb/>honourable. </s>

<s>The booty of the soldier, however, is frequently impious,<lb/>because in the fury of the fighting he seizes all goods, sacred as well as<lb/>profane. </s>

<s>The booty of the soldier, however, is frequently impious,<gap/><lb/>because in the fury of the fighting he seizes all goods, sacred as well as<gap/><lb/>profane. </s>

<s>The most just king may have to declare war on cruel tyrants, <lb/>but in the course of it wicked men cannot lose their wealth and possessions <lb/>without dragging into the same calamity innocent and poor people, old <lb/>men, matrons, maidens, and orphans. </s>

<s>But the miner is able to accumu<lb/>late great riches in a short time, without using any violence, fraud, or<lb/>malice. </s>

<s>But the miner is able to accumu<lb/>late great riches in a short time, without using any violence, fraud, o<gap/><lb/>malice. </s>

<s>That old saying is, therefore, not always true that “Every rich <lb/>man is either wicked himself, or is the heir to wickedness.”</s>

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<s>When a prospect of obtaining <lb/>metals shows itself in a mine, either the ruler or magistrate drives out the <lb/>rightful owners of the mines from possession, or a shrewd and cunning <lb/>neighbour perhaps brings a law-suit against the old possessors in order to <lb/>rob them of some part of their property. </s>

<s>Or the mine superintendent imposes<lb/>on the owners such a heavy contribution on shares, that if they cannot pay, <lb/>or will not, they lose their rights of possession; while the superintendent, <lb/>contrary to all that is right, seizes upon all that they have lost. </s>

<s>Or the mine superintendent imposes<gap/><lb/>on the owners such a heavy contribution on shares, that if they cannot pay, <lb/>or will not, they lose their rights of possession; while the superintendent, <lb/>contrary to all that is right, seizes upon all that they have lost. </s>

<s>Or, <pb xlink:href="002/01/057.jpg" pagenum="21"/>finally, the mine foreman may conceal the vein by plastering over with <lb/>clay that part where the metal abounds, or by covering it with earth, <lb/>stones, stakes, or poles, in the hope that after several years the pro<lb/>prietors, thinking the mine exhausted, will abandon it, and the foreman <lb/>can then excavate that remainder of the ore and keep it for himself. <lb/></s>

<s>Or, <pb pagenum="21"/>finally, the mine foreman may conceal the vein by plastering over with <lb/>clay that part where the metal abounds, or by covering it with earth, <lb/>stones, stakes, or poles, in the hope that after several years the pro<lb/>prietors, thinking the mine exhausted, will abandon it, and the foreman <lb/>can then excavate that remainder of the ore and keep it for himself. <lb/></s>

<s>They even state that the scum of the miners exist wholly by fraud, <lb/>deceit, and lying. </s>

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<s>Consequently, when the judgment is given, <lb/>inasmuch as each party has consented to submit to it, neither side should <lb/>complain of injustice; and when the controversy is adjudged, inasmuch as <lb/>the decision is in accordance with the laws concerning mining, one of the <lb/>parties cannot be injured by the law. </s>

<s>I do not vigorously contest the point, <lb/>that at times a mine superintendent may exact a larger contribution <pb xlink:href="002/01/058.jpg" pagenum="22"/>from the owners than necessity demands. </s>

<s>I do not vigorously contest the point, <lb/>that at times a mine superintendent may exact a larger contribution <pb pagenum="22"/>from the owners than necessity demands. </s>

<s>Nay, I will admit that a force<lb/>man may plaster over, or hide with a structure, a vein where it is rich in<lb/>metals. </s>

<s>Nay, I will admit that a for<gap/><lb/>man may plaster over, or hide with a structure, a vein where it is rich i<gap/><lb/>metals. </s>

<s>Is the wickedness of one or two to brand the many honest with<lb/>fraud and trickery? </s>

<s>Is the wickedness of one or two to brand the many honest wit<gap/><lb/>fraud and trickery? </s>

<s>What body is supposed to be more pious and virtuous<lb/>in the Republic than the Senate? </s>

<s>What body is supposed to be more pious and virtuou<gap/><lb/>in the Republic than the Senate? </s>

<s>Yet some Senators have been detected<lb/>in peculations, and have been punished. </s>

<s>Yet some Senators have been detecte<gap/><lb/>in peculations, and have been punished. </s>

<s>Is this any reason that so honour<lb/>able a house should lose its good name and fame? </s>

<s>Is this any reason that so honour<gap/><lb/>able a house should lose its good name and fame? </s>

<s>The superintendent<lb/>cannot exact contributions from the owners without the knowledge and<lb/>permission of the Bergmeister or the deputies; for this reason decep<lb/>tion of this kind is impossible. </s>

<s>The superintenden<gap/><lb/>cannot exact contributions from the owners without the knowledge an<gap/><lb/>permission of the Bergmeister or the deputies; for this reason decep<gap/><lb/>tion of this kind is impossible. </s>

<s>Should the foremen be convicted of<lb/>fraud, they are beaten with rods; or of theft, they are hanged. </s>

<s>Should the foremen be convicted o<gap/><lb/>fraud, they are beaten with rods; or of theft, they are hanged. </s>

<s>It<lb/>is complained that some sellers and buyers of the shares in mines are<lb/>fraudulent. </s>

<s>I<gap/><lb/>is complained that some sellers and buyers of the shares in mines ar<gap/><lb/>fraudulent. </s>

<s>I concede it. </s>

<s>But can they deceive anyone except a stupid,<lb/>careless man, unskilled in mining matters? </s>

<s>But can they deceive anyone except a stupid<gap/><lb/>careless man, unskilled in mining matters? </s>

<s>Indeed, a wise and prudent<lb/>man, skilled in this art, if he doubts the trustworthiness of a seller or<lb/>buyer, goes at once to the mine that he may for himself examine the vein<lb/>which has been so greatly praised or disparaged, and may consider whether<lb/>he will buy or sell the shares or not. </s>

<s>Indeed, a wise and pruden<gap/><lb/>man, skilled in this art, if he doubts the trustworthiness of a seller o<gap/><lb/>buyer, goes at once to the mine that he may for himself examine the vei<gap/><lb/>which has been so greatly praised or disparaged, and may consider whethe<gap/><lb/>he will buy or sell the shares or not. </s>

<s>But people say, though such an one<lb/>can be on his guard against fraud, yet a simple man and one who is easily<lb/>credulous, is deceived. </s>

<s>But people say, though such an on<gap/><lb/>can be on his guard against fraud, yet a simple man and one who is easil<gap/><lb/>credulous, is deceived. </s>

<s>But we frequently see a man who is trying to mislead<lb/>another in this way deceive himself, and deservedly become a laughing<lb/>stock for everyone; or very often the defrauder as well as the dupe is<lb/>entirely ignorant of mining. </s>

<s>But we frequently see a man who is trying to mislea<gap/><lb/>another in this way deceive himself, and deservedly become a laughing<gap/><lb/>stock for everyone; or very often the defrauder as well as the dupe i<gap/><lb/>entirely ignorant of mining. </s>

<s>If, for instance, a vein has been found to be<lb/>abundant in ore, contrary to the idea of the would-be deceiver, then he who<lb/>was to have been cheated gets a profit, and he who has been the deceiver<lb/>loses. </s>

<s>If, for instance, a vein has been found to b<gap/><lb/>abundant in ore, contrary to the idea of the would-be deceiver, then he wh<gap/><lb/>was to have been cheated gets a profit, and he who has been the deceive<gap/><lb/>loses. </s>

<s>Nevertheless, the miners themselves rarely buy or sell shares, but<lb/>generally they have <emph type="italics"/>jurati venditores<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>28<emph.end type="sup"/> who buy and sell at such prices as they<lb/>have been instructed to give or accept. </s>

<s>Nevertheless, the miners themselves rarely buy or sell shares, bu<gap/><lb/>generally they have <emph type="italics"/>jurati venditores<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>28<emph.end type="sup"/> who buy and sell at such prices as the<gap/><lb/>have been instructed to give or accept. </s>

<s>Seeing therefore, that magistrates<lb/>decide disputes on fair and just principles, that honest men deceive nobody,<lb/>while a dishonest one cannot deceive easily, or if he does he cannot do so<lb/>with impunity, the criticism of those who wish to disparage the honesty of<lb/>miners has therefore no force or weight.</s>

<s>Seeing therefore, that magistrate<gap/><lb/>decide disputes on fair and just principles, that honest men deceive nobody<gap/><lb/>while a dishonest one cannot deceive easily, or if he does he cannot do s<gap/><lb/>with impunity, the criticism of those who wish to disparage the honesty <gap/><lb/>miners has therefore no force or weight.</s>

<s>In the next place, the occupation of the miner is objectionable to<lb/>nobody. </s>

<s>In the next place, the occupation of the miner is objectionable t<gap/><lb/>nobody. </s>

<s>For who, unless he be naturally malevolent and envious, will<lb/>hate the man who gains wealth as it were from heaven? </s>

<s>For who, unless he be naturally malevolent and envious, wi<gap/><lb/>hate the man who gains wealth as it were from heaven? </s>

<s>Or who will hate<lb/>a man who to amplify his fortune, adopts a method which is free from<lb/>reproach? </s>

<s>Or who will hat<gap/><lb/>a man who to amplify his fortune, adopts a method which is free fro<gap/><lb/>reproach? </s>

<s>A moneylender, if he demands an excessive interest, incurs the<lb/>hatred of men. </s>

<s>A moneylender, if he demands an excessive interest, incurs th<gap/><lb/>hatred of men. </s>

<s>If he demands a moderate and lawful rate, so that he is not<lb/>injurious to the public generally and does not impoverish them, he fails to<lb/>become very rich from his business. </s>

<s>If he demands a moderate and lawful rate, so that he is n<gap/><lb/>injurious to the public generally and does not impoverish them, he fails t<gap/><lb/>become very rich from his business. </s>

<s>Further, the gain derived from mining<lb/>is not sordid, for how can it be such, seeing that it is so great, so plentiful,<lb/>and of so innocent a nature. </s>

<s>Further, the gain derived from minin<gap/><lb/>is not sordid, for how can it be such, seeing that it is so great, so plentifu<gap/><lb/>and of so innocent a nature. </s>

<s>A merchant's profits are mean and base when<lb/>he sells counterfeit and spurious merchandise, or puts far too high a price<lb/>on goods that he has purchased for little; for this reason the merchant<pb xlink:href="002/01/059.jpg" pagenum="23"/>would be held in no less odium amongst good men than is the usurer, did <lb/>they not take account of the risk he runs to secure his merchandise. </s>

<s>A merchant's profits are mean and base whe<gap/><lb/>he sells counterfeit and spurious merchandise, or puts far too high a pri<gap/><lb/>on goods that he has purchased for little; for this reason the mercha<gap/><pb pagenum="23"/>would be held in no less odium amongst good men than is the usurer, did <lb/>they not take account of the risk he runs to secure his merchandise. </s>

<s>In <lb/>truth, those who on this point speak abusively of mining for the sake of <lb/>detracting from its merits, say that in former days men convicted of crimes <lb/>and misdeeds were sentenced to the mines and were worked as slaves. </s>

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<s>Quintius Cincinnatus, as he was at <lb/>work in the fields, nor would it have summoned to the Senate House the <lb/>chief men of the State from their country villas. </s>

<s>Similarly, in our day, <lb/>Maximilian Cæsar would not have enrolled Conrad in the ranks of the nobles <lb/>known as Counts; Conrad was really very poor when he served in the mines <lb/>of Schneeberg, and for that reason he was nicknamed the “poor man”; but <pb xlink:href="002/01/060.jpg" pagenum="24"/>not many years after, he attained wealth from the mines of Fürst, which <lb/>is a city in Lorraine, and took his name from “Luck.”<emph type="sup"/>30<emph.end type="sup"/> Nor would <lb/>King Vladislaus have restored to the Assembly of Barons, Tursius, a <lb/>citizen of Cracow, who became rich through the mines in that part of the <lb/>kingdom of Hungary which was formerly called Dacia.<emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/> Nay, not even the <lb/>common worker in the mines is vile and abject. </s>

<s>Similarly, in our day, <lb/>Maximilian Cæsar would not have enrolled Conrad in the ranks of the nobles <lb/>known as Counts; Conrad was really very poor when he served in the mines <lb/>of Schneeberg, and for that reason he was nicknamed the “poor man”; but <pb pagenum="24"/>not many years after, he attained wealth from the mines of Fürst, which <lb/>is a city in Lorraine, and took his name from “Luck.”<emph type="sup"/>30<emph.end type="sup"/> Nor would <lb/>King Vladislaus have restored to the Assembly of Barons, Tursius, a <lb/>citizen of Cracow, who became rich through the mines in that part of the <lb/>kingdom of Hungary which was formerly called Dacia.<emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/> Nay, not even the <lb/>common worker in the mines is vile and abject. </s>

<s>For, trained to vigilance <lb/>and work by night and day, he has great powers of endurance when occasion <lb/>demands, and easily sustains the fatigues and duties of a soldier, for he is <lb/>accustomed to keep long vigils at night, to wield iron tools, to dig trenches, <lb/>to drive tunnels, to make machines, and to carry burdens. </s>

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<s>Certainly, though it is but one of <lb/>ten important and excellent methods of acquiring wealth in an honourable <lb/>way, a careful and diligent man can attain this result in no easier way <lb/>than by mining.<lb/><lb/></s>

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<s>When anyone, in an endeavour to increase his fortune, meets the <lb/>expenditure of a mine alone, it is of great importance that he should attend <lb/>to his works and personally superintend everything that he has ordered to <lb/>be done. </s>

<s>For this reason, he should either have his dwelling at the mine, <pb xlink:href="002/01/062.jpg" pagenum="26"/>where he may always be in sight of the workmen and always take care that <lb/>none neglect their duties, or else he should live in the neighbourhood, so <lb/>that he may frequently inspect his mining works. </s>

<s>For this reason, he should either have his dwelling at the mine, <pb pagenum="26"/>where he may always be in sight of the workmen and always take care that <lb/>none neglect their duties, or else he should live in the neighbourhood, so <lb/>that he may frequently inspect his mining works. </s>

<s>Then he may send word <lb/>by a messenger to the workmen that he is coming more frequently than <lb/>he really intends to come, and so either by his arrival or by the intimation <lb/>of it, he so frightens the workmen that none of them perform their duties <lb/>otherwise than diligently. </s>

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<s>But if <lb/>no man amongst them be willing or able to undertake and sustain the bur<lb/>dens of these offices, it will be to the common interest to place them in the <lb/>hands of most diligent men. </s>

<s>Formerly indeed, these things were looked <lb/>after by the mining prefect<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>, because the owners were kings, as Priam, who <lb/>owned the gold mines round Abydos, or as Midas, who was the owner of <lb/>those situated in Mount Bermius, or as Gyges, or as Alyattes, or as Croesus, <lb/>who was the owner of those mines near a deserted town between Atarnea <lb/>and Pergamum<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>; sometimes the mines belonged to a Republic, as, for <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/063.jpg" pagenum="27"/>instance, the prosperous silver mines in Spain which belonged to Carthage<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>; <lb/>sometimes they were the property of great and illustrious families, as were <lb/>the Athenian mines in Mount Laurion<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s>

<s>Formerly indeed, these things were looked <lb/>after by the mining prefect<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>, because the owners were kings, as Priam, who <lb/>owned the gold mines round Abydos, or as Midas, who was the owner of <lb/>those situated in Mount Bermius, or as Gyges, or as Alyattes, or as Croesus, <lb/>who was the owner of those mines near a deserted town between Atarnea <lb/>and Pergamum<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>; sometimes the mines belonged to a Republic, as, for <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="27"/>instance, the prosperous silver mines in Spain which belonged to Carthage<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>; <lb/>sometimes they were the property of great and illustrious families, as were <lb/>the Athenian mines in Mount Laurion<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s>

<s>When a man owns mines but is ignorant of the art of mining, then <lb/>it is advisable that he should share in common with others the expenses, <lb/>not of one only, but of several mines. </s>

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<s>But the man who, in common with others, <lb/>has laid out his money on several mines in a region renowned for its wealth <lb/>of metals, rarely spends it in vain, for fortune usually responds to his <lb/>hopes in part. </s>

<s>For when out of twelve veins in which he has a joint interest <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/064.jpg" pagenum="28"/>one yields an abundance of metals, it not only gives back to the owner the <lb/>money he has spent, but also gives a profit besides; certainly there will <lb/>be for him rich and profitable mining, if of the whole number, three, or four, <lb/>or more veins should yield metal. </s>

<s>For when out of twelve veins in which he has a joint interest <lb/><pb pagenum="28"/>one yields an abundance of metals, it not only gives back to the owner the <lb/>money he has spent, but also gives a profit besides; certainly there will <lb/>be for him rich and profitable mining, if of the whole number, three, or four, <lb/>or more veins should yield metal. </s>

<s>Very similar to this is the advice which <lb/>Xenophon gave to the Athenians when they wished to prospect for new <lb/>veins of silver without suffering loss. </s>

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<s>And if two, three, or four tribes, or even half the whole number <lb/>find veins, their works would then become more profitable; and it is not <lb/>“probable that the work of all the tribes will be disappointing”<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> Although <lb/>this advice of Xenophon is full of prudence, there is no opportunity for it <lb/>except in free and wealthy States; for those people who are under the <lb/>authority of kings and princes, or are kept in subjection by tyranny, do not <lb/>dare, without permission, to incur such expenditure; those who are endowed <lb/>with little wealth and resources cannot do so on account of insufficient funds. <lb/></s>

<s>Moreover, amongst our race it is not customary for Republics to have slaves <lb/>whom they can hire out for the benefit of the people<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>; but, instead, now<lb/>adays those who are in authority administer the funds for mining in the name <lb/>of the State, not unlike private individuals.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/065.jpg" pagenum="29"/>

<s>Some owners prefer to buy shares<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> in mines abounding in metals, <lb/>rather than to be troubled themselves to search for the veins; these men <lb/>employ an easier and less uncertain method of increasing their property. <lb/></s>

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<s>Investors in shares may perhaps <lb/>become less wealthy, but they are more certain of some gain than those who <lb/>mine for metals at their own expense, as they are more cautious in trusting <lb/>to fortune. </s>

<s>Neither ought miners to be altogether distrustful of fortune, as <lb/>we see some are, who as soon as the shares of any mine begin to go up in <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/066.jpg" pagenum="30"/>value, sell them, on which account they seldom obtain even moderate wealth. <lb/></s>

<s>Neither ought miners to be altogether distrustful of fortune, as <lb/>we see some are, who as soon as the shares of any mine begin to go up in <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="30"/>value, sell them, on which account they seldom obtain even moderate wealth. <lb/></s>

<s>There are some people who wash over the dumps from exhausted and <lb/>abandoned mines, and those dumps which are derived from the drains of <lb/>tunnels; and others who smelt the old slags; from all of which they make an <lb/>ample return.</s>

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<s>Moreover, mountains have a <lb/>great variety of shapes; for with some the slopes rise gradually, while <lb/>others, on the contrary, are all precipitous; in some others the slopes are <lb/>gradual on one side, and on the other sides precipitous; some are drawn <lb/>out in length; some are gently curved; others assume different <lb/>shapes. </s>

<s>But the miner may dig in all parts of them, except where there <lb/>are precipices, and he should not neglect even these latter if metallic veins <pb xlink:href="002/01/067.jpg" pagenum="31"/>are exposed before his eyes. </s>

<s>But the miner may dig in all parts of them, except where there <lb/>are precipices, and he should not neglect even these latter if metallic veins <pb pagenum="31"/>are exposed before his eyes. </s>

<s>There are just as great differences in hills as <lb/>there are in mountains, yet the miner does not dig except in those situated <lb/>in mountainous districts, and even very rarely in those. </s>

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<s>The miner should next consider the locality, as to whether it has a <lb/>perpetual supply of running water, or whether it is always devoid of water <lb/>except when a torrent supplied by rains flows down from the summits of the <lb/>mountains. </s>

<s>The place that Nature has provided with a river or stream can <pb xlink:href="002/01/068.jpg" pagenum="32"/>be made serviceable for many things; for water will never be wanting and <lb/>can be carried through wooden pipes to baths in dwelling-houses; it may <lb/>be carried to the works, where the metals are smelted; and finally, if the <lb/>conditions of the place will allow it, the water can be diverted into the <lb/>tunnels, so that it may turn the underground machinery. </s>

<s>The place that Nature has provided with a river or stream can <pb pagenum="32"/>be made serviceable for many things; for water will never be wanting and <lb/>can be carried through wooden pipes to baths in dwelling-houses; it may <lb/>be carried to the works, where the metals are smelted; and finally, if the <lb/>conditions of the place will allow it, the water can be diverted into the <lb/>tunnels, so that it may turn the underground machinery. </s>

<s>Yet on the other <lb/>hand, to convey a constant supply of water by artificial means to mines <lb/>where Nature has denied it access, or to convey the ore to the stream, <lb/>increases the expense greatly, in proportion to the distance the mines are <lb/>away from the river.</s>

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<s>Since several miners usually come to mine the veins in one locality, a <lb/>settlement generally springs up, for the miner who began first cannot keep <lb/>it exclusively for himself. </s>

<s>The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> gives permits to some to mine <pb xlink:href="002/01/069.jpg" pagenum="33"/>the superior and some the inferior parts of the veins; to some he gives <lb/>the cross veins, to others the inclined veins. </s>

<s>The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> gives permits to some to mine <pb pagenum="33"/>the superior and some the inferior parts of the veins; to some he gives <lb/>the cross veins, to others the inclined veins. </s>

<s>If the man who first starts <lb/>work finds the vein to be metal-bearing or yielding other mining products, <lb/>it will not be to his advantage to cease work because the neighbourhood may <lb/>be evil, but he will guard and defend his rights both by arms and by the law. <lb/></s>

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<s>But I must return to the subject of the sands.</s>

<s>Springs may discharge their waters into a sea, a lake, a marsh, a river, <lb/>or a stream; but the sand of the sea-shore is rarely washed, for although the <lb/>water flowing down from the springs into the sea carries some metals or <lb/>gems with it, yet these substances can scarcely ever be reclaimed, because <lb/>they are dispersed through the immense body of waters and mixed up with <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/070.jpg" pagenum="34"/>other sand, and scattered far and wide in different directions, or they <lb/>sink down into the depths of the sea. </s>

<s>Springs may discharge their waters into a sea, a lake, a marsh, a river, <lb/>or a stream; but the sand of the sea-shore is rarely washed, for although the <lb/>water flowing down from the springs into the sea carries some metals or <lb/>gems with it, yet these substances can scarcely ever be reclaimed, because <lb/>they are dispersed through the immense body of waters and mixed up with <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="34"/>other sand, and scattered far and wide in different directions, or they <lb/>sink down into the depths of the sea. </s>

<s>For the same reasons, the sands of <lb/>lakes can very rarely be washed successfully, even though the streams rising <lb/>from the mountains pour their whole volume of water into them. </s>

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<s>The strength of the sea condenses the liquid bitumen which flows into <lb/>it from hidden springs, into amber and jet, as I have described already in <lb/>my books “<emph type="italics"/>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causis<emph.end type="italics"/>”<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>The sea, with certain <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/071.jpg" pagenum="35"/>directions of the wind, throws both these substances on shore, and for this <lb/>reason the search for amber demands as much care as does that for coral.</s>

<s>The sea, with certain <lb/><pb pagenum="35"/>directions of the wind, throws both these substances on shore, and for this <lb/>reason the search for amber demands as much care as does that for coral.</s>

<s>Moreover, it is necessary that those who wash the sand or evaporate <lb/>the water from the springs, should be careful to learn the nature of the <lb/>locality, its roads, its salubrity, its overlord, and the neighbours, lest on <lb/>account of difficulties in the conduct of their business they become either <lb/>impoverished by exhaustive expenditure, or their goods and lives are <lb/>imperilled. </s>

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<s>These have either been stripped bare of their covering by chance <lb/>and thus lie exposed to our view, or lying deeply hidden and concealed they <lb/>are found after close search; the latter is more usual, the former more <lb/>rarely happens, and both of these occurrences must be explained. </s>

<s>There <lb/>is more than one force which can lay bare the veins unaided by the industry <lb/>or toil of man; since either a torrent might strip off the surface, which hap<lb/>pened in the case of the silver mines of Freiberg (concerning which I have <pb xlink:href="002/01/072.jpg" pagenum="36"/>written in Book I. of my work “<emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novís Metallís<emph.end type="italics"/>”)<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>; or they <lb/>may be exposed through the force of the wind, when it uproots and destroys <lb/>the trees which have grown over the veins; or by the breaking away of the <lb/>rocks; or by long-continued heavy rains tearing away the mountain; or by <lb/>an earthquake; or by a lightning flash; or by a snowslide; or by the <lb/>violence of the winds: “Of such a nature are the rocks hurled down from <lb/>the mountains by the force of the winds aided by the ravages of time.” Or <lb/>the plough may uncover the veins, for Justin relates in his history that <lb/>nuggets of gold had been turned up in Galicia by the plough; or this may <lb/>occur through a fire in the forest, as Diodorus Siculus tells us happened in the <lb/>silver mines in Spain; and that saying of Posidonius is appropriate enough: <lb/>“The earth violently moved by the fires consuming the forest sends forth new <lb/>products, namely, gold and silver.”<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>There <lb/>is more than one force which can lay bare the veins unaided by the industry <lb/>or toil of man; since either a torrent might strip off the surface, which hap<lb/>pened in the case of the silver mines of Freiberg (concerning which I have <pb pagenum="36"/>written in Book I. of my work “<emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novís Metallís<emph.end type="italics"/>”)<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>; or they <lb/>may be exposed through the force of the wind, when it uproots and destroys <lb/>the trees which have grown over the veins; or by the breaking away of the <lb/>rocks; or by long-continued heavy rains tearing away the mountain; or by <lb/>an earthquake; or by a lightning flash; or by a snowslide; or by the <lb/>violence of the winds: “Of such a nature are the rocks hurled down from <lb/>the mountains by the force of the winds aided by the ravages of time.” Or <lb/>the plough may uncover the veins, for Justin relates in his history that <lb/>nuggets of gold had been turned up in Galicia by the plough; or this may <lb/>occur through a fire in the forest, as Diodorus Siculus tells us happened in the <lb/>silver mines in Spain; and that saying of Posidonius is appropriate enough: <lb/>“The earth violently moved by the fires consuming the forest sends forth new <lb/>products, namely, gold and silver.”<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>And indeed, Lucretius has ex<lb/>plained the same thing more fully in the following lines: “Copper and gold <lb/>and iron were discovered, and at the same time weighty silver and the sub<lb/>stance of lead, when fire had burned up vast forests on the great hills, either <lb/>by a discharge of heaven's lightning, or else because, when men were waging <lb/>war with one another, forest fires had carried fire among the enemy in order to <lb/>strike terror to them, or because, attracted by the goodness of the soil, they <lb/>wished to clear rich fields and bring the country into pasture, or else to destroy <lb/>wild beasts and enrich themselves with the game; for hunting with pitfalls <lb/>and with fire came into use before the practice of enclosing the wood with <lb/>toils and rousing the game with dogs. </s>

<s>Whatever the fact is, from <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/073.jpg" pagenum="37"/>whatever cause the heat of flame had swallowed up the forests with a frightful <lb/>crackling from their very roots, and had thoroughly baked the earth with <lb/>fire, there would run from the boiling veins and collect into the hollows of the <lb/>grounds a stream of silver and gold, as well as of copper and lead.”<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> But <lb/>yet the poet considers that the veins are not laid bare in the first instance <lb/>so much by this kind of fire, but rather that all mining had its <lb/>origin in this. </s>

<s>Whatever the fact is, from <lb/><pb pagenum="37"/>whatever cause the heat of flame had swallowed up the forests with a frightful <lb/>crackling from their very roots, and had thoroughly baked the earth with <lb/>fire, there would run from the boiling veins and collect into the hollows of the <lb/>grounds a stream of silver and gold, as well as of copper and lead.”<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> But <lb/>yet the poet considers that the veins are not laid bare in the first instance <lb/>so much by this kind of fire, but rather that all mining had its <lb/>origin in this. </s>

<s>And lastly, some other force may by chance disclose the <lb/>veins, for a horse, if this tale can be believed, disclosed the lead veins at <lb/>Goslar by a blow from his hoof<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

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<s>Further, we search for the veins by observing the hoar-frosts, <lb/>which whiten all herbage except that growing over the veins, because the <lb/>veins emit a warm and dry exhalation which hinders the freezing of the <lb/>moisture, for which reason such plants appear rather wet than whitened by <lb/>the frost. </s>

<s>This may be observed in all cold places before the grass has grown <lb/>to its full size, as in the months of April and May; or when the late crop of <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/074.jpg" pagenum="38"/>hay, which is called the <emph type="italics"/>cordum,<emph.end type="italics"/> is cut with scythes in the month of <lb/>September. </s>

<s>This may be observed in all cold places before the grass has grown <lb/>to its full size, as in the months of April and May; or when the late crop of <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="38"/>hay, which is called the <emph type="italics"/>cordum,<emph.end type="italics"/> is cut with scythes in the month of <lb/>September. </s>

<s>Therefore in places where the grass has a dampness that is not con<lb/>gealed into frost, there is a vein beneath: also if the exhalation be excessively <lb/>hot, the soil will produce only small and pale-coloured plants. </s>

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<s>There are many great contentions between miners concerning the forked <lb/>twig<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/>, for some say that it is of the greatest use in discovering veins, and <lb/>others deny it. </s>

<s>Some of those who manipulate and use the twig, first cut <lb/>a fork from a hazel bush with a knife, for this bush they consider more <lb/>efficacious than any other for revealing the veins, especially if the hazel <pb xlink:href="002/01/075.jpg" pagenum="39"/>bush grows above a vein. </s>

<s>Others use a different kind of twig for each metal, <lb/>when they are seeking to discover the veins, for they employ hazel twigs <lb/>for veins of silver; ash twigs for copper; pitch pine for lead and especially <lb/>tin, and rods made of iron and steel for gold. </s>

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<s>Therefore, they <lb/>consider that five things are necessary to insure that the twig shall serve <lb/>its purpose: of these the first is the size of the twig, for the force of the <lb/>veins cannot turn too large a stick; secondly, there is the shape of the twig, <lb/>which must be forked or the vein cannot turn it; thirdly, the power of the <lb/>vein which has the nature to turn it; fourthly, the manipulation of the twig; <lb/>fifthly, the absence of impeding peculiarities. </s>

<s>These advocates of the twig <lb/>sum up their conclusions as follows: if the rod does not move for every<lb/>body, it is due to unskilled manipulation or to the impeding peculiarities <lb/>of the man which oppose and resist the force of the veins, as we said above, <lb/>and those who search for veins by means of the twig need not necessarily make <lb/>incantations, but it is sufficient that they handle it suitably and are devoid <lb/>of impeding power; therefore, the twig may be of use to good and serious </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/076.jpg" pagenum="40"/><figure id="id.002.01.076.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/076/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—TWIG. B—TRENCH.<lb/>men in discovering veins. </s>

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<s>The <lb/>wizards, who also make use of rings, mirrors and crystals, seek for veins <lb/>with a divining rod shaped like a fork; but its shape makes no difference <lb/>in the matter,—it might be straight or of some other form—for it is not <lb/>the form of the twig that matters, but the wizard's incantations <lb/>which it would not become me to repeat, neither do I wish to do so. </s>

<s>The <lb/>Ancients, by means of the divining rod, not only procured those things neces<lb/>sary for a livelihood or for luxury, but they were also able to alter the forms <lb/>of things by it; as when the magicians changed the rods of the Egyptians <lb/>into serpents, as the writings of the Hebrews relate<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/>; and as in Homer, <lb/>Minerva with a divining rod turned the aged Ulysses suddenly into a youth, <lb/>and then restored him back again to old age; Circe also changed Ulysses' <lb/>companions into beasts, but afterward gave them back again their human <lb/>form<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/>; moreover by his rod, which was called “Caduceus,” Mercury gave <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/077.jpg" pagenum="41"/>sleep to watchmen and awoke slumberers<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>The <lb/>Ancients, by means of the divining rod, not only procured those things neces<lb/>sary for a livelihood or for luxury, but they were also able to alter the forms <lb/>of things by it; as when the magicians changed the rods of the Egyptians <lb/>into serpents, as the writings of the Hebrews relate<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/>; and as in Homer, <lb/>Minerva with a divining rod turned the aged Ulysses suddenly into a youth, <lb/>and then restored him back again to old age; Circe also changed Ulysses' <lb/>companions into beasts, but afterward gave them back again their human <lb/>form<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/>; moreover by his rod, which was called “Caduceus,” Mercury gave <lb/><pb pagenum="41"/>sleep to watchmen and awoke slumberers<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>Therefore it seems that the <lb/>divining rod passed to the mines from its impure origin with the magicians. <lb/></s>

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<s>So if Nature or chance should indicate a locality suitable for mining, the <lb/>miner should dig his trenches there; if no vein appears he must dig <lb/>numerous trenches until he discovers an outcrop of a vein.</s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>A vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> is rarely discovered by men's labour, but usually some <lb/>force or other reveals it, or sometimes it is discovered by a shaft or a tunnel <lb/>on a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/078.jpg" pagenum="42"/>

<s>The veins after they have been discovered, and likewise the shafts and <lb/>tunnels, have names given them, either from their discoverers, as in the <lb/>case at Annaberg of the vein called “Kölergang,” because a charcoal <lb/>burner discovered it; or from their owners, as the Geyer, in Joachimstal, <lb/>because part of the same belonged to Geyer; or from their products, <lb/>as the “Pleygang” from lead, or the “Bissmutisch” at Schneeberg from <lb/>bismuth<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/>; or from some other circumstances, such as the rich alluvials from <lb/>the torrent by which they were laid bare in the valley of Joachim. </s>

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<s>One of these at the present day, called Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with <lb/>three hundred pounds weight (of silver) per day.”<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/><lb/></s>

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<s>With such <lb/>matters I was occupied in the second book; now I <lb/>come to the third book, which is about veins and <lb/>stringers, and the seams in the rocks<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>The <lb/>term “vein” is sometimes used to indicate <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>in the earth, but very often elsewhere by this name I have described that <lb/>which may be put in vessels<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>; I now attach a second significance to <lb/>these words, for by them I mean to designate any mineral substances which <lb/>the earth keeps hidden within her own deep receptacles.<lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/080.jpg" pagenum="44"/>

<s>First I will speak of the veins, which, in depth, width, and length, differ <lb/>very much one from another. </s>

<s>Those of one variety descend from the surface <lb/>of the earth to its lowest depths, which on account of this characteristic, <lb/>I am accustomed to call “<emph type="italics"/>venae profundae.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/081.jpg" pagenum="45"/><figure id="id.002.01.081.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/081/1.jpg"/>

<s>A. C.—THE MOUNTAIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Another kind, unlike the <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> neither ascend to the surface <lb/>of the earth nor descend, but lying under the ground, expand over a large <lb/>area; and on that account I call them “<emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s><figure id="id.002.01.081.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/081/2.jpg"/><pb xlink:href="002/01/082.jpg" pagenum="46"/>

<s>Another occupies a large extent of space in length and width; there<lb/>fore I usually call it “<emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata,<emph.end type="italics"/>” for it is nothing else than an accumu<lb/>lation of some certain kind of mineral, as I have described in the book <pb xlink:href="002/01/083.jpg" pagenum="47"/>entitled <emph type="italics"/>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causís.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> It occasionally happens, <lb/>though it is unusual and rare, that several accumulations of this kind are <lb/>found in one place, each one or more fathoms in depth and four or five in <pb xlink:href="002/01/084.jpg" pagenum="48"/>width, and one is distant from another two, three, or more fathoms. </s>

<s>Another occupies a large extent of space in length and width; there<lb/>fore I usually call it “<emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata,<emph.end type="italics"/>” for it is nothing else than an accumu<lb/>lation of some certain kind of mineral, as I have described in the book <pb pagenum="47"/>entitled <emph type="italics"/>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causís.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> It occasionally happens, <lb/>though it is unusual and rare, that several accumulations of this kind are <lb/>found in one place, each one or more fathoms in depth and four or five in <pb pagenum="48"/>width, and one is distant from another two, three, or more fathoms. </s>

<s>When <lb/>the excavation of these accumulations begins, they at first appear in the <lb/>shape of a disc; then they open out wider; finally from each of such </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/085.jpg" pagenum="49"/><figure id="id.002.01.085.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/085/1.jpg"/>

<s>When <lb/>the excavation of these accumulations begins, they at first appear in the <lb/>shape of a disc; then they open out wider; finally from each of such </s><pb pagenum="49"/><figure></figure>

<s>A, B, C, D—THE MOUNTAIN. E, F, G, H, I, K—<emph type="italics"/>Vena cumulata.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>accumulations is usually formed a “<emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/086.jpg" pagenum="50"/><figure id="id.002.01.086.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/086/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—<emph type="italics"/>Intervenium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> C—ANOTHER <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><figure id="id.002.01.086.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/086/2.jpg"/>

<s>A & B—<emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> C—<emph type="italics"/>Intervenium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> D & E—OTHER <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/087.jpg" pagenum="51"/>

<s>The space between two veins is called an <emph type="italics"/>interveníum;<emph.end type="italics"/> this interval <lb/>between the veins, if it is between <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> is entirely hidden under<lb/>ground. </s>

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<s><emph type="italics"/>Venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ greatly one from another in width, for some of <lb/>them are one fathom wide, some are two cubits, others one cubit; others again <lb/>are a foot wide, and some only half a foot; all of which our miners call wide <lb/>veins. </s>

<s>Others on the contrary, are only a palm wide, others three digits, <pb xlink:href="002/01/088.jpg" pagenum="52"/>or even two; these they call narrow. </s>

<s>Others on the contrary, are only a palm wide, others three digits, <pb pagenum="52"/>or even two; these they call narrow. </s>

<s>But in other places where there are <lb/>very wide veins, the widths of a cubit, or a foot, or half a foot, are said to be <lb/>narrow; at Cremnitz, for instance, there is a certain vein which measures <lb/>in one place fifteen fathoms in width, in another eighteen, and in another <lb/>twenty; the truth of this statement is vouched for by the inhabitants.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/089.jpg" pagenum="53"/><figure id="id.002.01.089.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/089/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—WIDE <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—NARROW <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> in truth, differ also in thickness, for some are one fathom <lb/>thick, others two, or even more; some are a cubit thick, some a foot, some <lb/>only half a foot; and all these are usually called thick veins. </s>

<s>Some on the <lb/>other hand, are but a palm thick, some three digits, some two, some one; <lb/>these are called thin veins.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/090.jpg" pagenum="54"/><figure id="id.002.01.090.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/090/1.jpg"/>

<s>Some on the <lb/>other hand, are but a palm thick, some three digits, some two, some one; <lb/>these are called thin veins.</s><pb pagenum="54"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—THIN <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—THICK <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> vary in direction; for some run from east to west.</s><figure id="id.002.01.090.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/090/2.jpg"/>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> vary in direction; for some run from east to west.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—SEAMS IN THE ROCK (<emph type="italics"/>Commissurae Saxorum<emph.end type="italics"/>).</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/091.jpg" pagenum="55"/>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—SEAMS IN THE ROCK (<emph type="italics"/>Commissurae Saxorum<emph.end type="italics"/>).</s><pb pagenum="55"/>

<s>Others, on the other hand, run from west to east.</s><figure id="id.002.01.091.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/091/1.jpg"/>

<s>Others, on the other hand, run from west to east.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Others run from south to north.</s><figure id="id.002.01.091.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/091/2.jpg"/>

<s>Others run from south to north.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/092.jpg" pagenum="56"/>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><pb pagenum="56"/>

<s>Others, on the contrary, run from north to south.</s><figure id="id.002.01.092.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/092/1.jpg"/>

<s>Others, on the contrary, run from north to south.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

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<s>Then, within the circle are inscribed three other circles, the outer<lb/>most of which has cross-lines dividing it into twenty-four equal parts; the <lb/>space between it and the next circle contains two sets of twelve numbers, <lb/>inscribed on the lines called “diameters”; while within the innermost circle <lb/>it is hollowed out to contain a magnetic needle<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>The needle lies directly <pb xlink:href="002/01/093.jpg" pagenum="57"/>over that one of the twelve lines called “diameters” on which the number <lb/>XII is inscribed at both ends.</s><figure id="id.002.01.093.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/093/1.jpg"/>

<s>The needle lies directly <pb pagenum="57"/>over that one of the twelve lines called “diameters” on which the number <lb/>XII is inscribed at both ends.</s><figure></figure>

<s>When the needle which is governed by the magnet points directly <lb/>from the north to the south, the number XII at its tail, which is <lb/>forked, signifies the north, that number XII which is at its point indicates <lb/>the south. </s>

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<s>The first two of these directions <lb/>are called the prior directions; the last two are called the posterior, and <lb/>the fifth direction lies immediately between the former and the latter; it <lb/>is halved, and one half is attributed to one cardinal point and one half to the <lb/>other. </s>

<s>For example, between the northern number XII and the eastern <lb/>number VI, are points numbered I, II, III, IV, V, of which I and <pb xlink:href="002/01/094.jpg" pagenum="58"/>II are northern directions lying toward the east, IV and V are eastern <lb/>directions lying toward the north, and III is assigned, half to the north and <lb/>half to the east.</s>

<s>For example, between the northern number XII and the eastern <lb/>number VI, are points numbered I, II, III, IV, V, of which I and <pb pagenum="58"/>II are northern directions lying toward the east, IV and V are eastern <lb/>directions lying toward the north, and III is assigned, half to the north and <lb/>half to the east.</s>

<s>One who wishes to know the direction of the veins underground, places <lb/>over the vein the instrument just described; and the needle, as soon as it <lb/>becomes quiet, will indicate the course of the vein. </s>

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<s>There are four principal winds, as there are four cardinal points: <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which blows from the east; and its opposite the <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which blows from the west; the latter is called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*ze/furos,</foreign> and <lb/>the former <foreign lang="greek">*)aphliw/ths.</foreign> There is the <emph type="italics"/>Auster,<emph.end type="italics"/> which blows from the south; <lb/>and opposed to it is the <emph type="italics"/>Septentrío,<emph.end type="italics"/> from the north; the former the Greeks <lb/>called <foreign lang="greek">*no/tos,</foreign> and the latter <foreign lang="greek">*)aparkti/as.</foreign> There are also subordinate winds, <lb/>to the number of twenty, as there are directions, for between each two <lb/>principal winds there are always five subordinate ones. </s>

<s>Between the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind) there is the <emph type="italics"/>Orníthíae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or the Bird wind, which has the first place next to the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/>comes <emph type="italics"/>Caecías;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Eurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which lies in the midway of these five; next <lb/>comes <emph type="italics"/>Vulturnus;<emph.end type="italics"/> and lastly, <emph type="italics"/>Euronotus,<emph.end type="italics"/> nearest the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind). <lb/>The Greeks have given these names to all of these, with the exception of <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Vulturnus,<emph.end type="italics"/> but those who do not distinguish the winds in so precise a manner <lb/>say this is the same as the Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">*eu)_ros.</foreign> Between the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south <lb/>wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Favonius<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind) is first <emph type="italics"/>Altanus,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the right of the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind); then <emph type="italics"/>Líbonotus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Afrícus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is the middle <lb/>one of these five; after that comes <emph type="italics"/>Subvesperus;<emph.end type="italics"/> next <emph type="italics"/>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left <lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind). All these, with the exception of <emph type="italics"/>Líbonotus<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"/> have Latin names; but <emph type="italics"/>Afrícus<emph.end type="italics"/> also is called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*ai/y.</foreign><lb/>In a similar manner, between <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind) and <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north <lb/>wind), first to the right of <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind), is the <emph type="italics"/>Etesíae;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Círcíus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is in the middle of these five; then <emph type="italics"/>Corus;<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and lastly <emph type="italics"/>Thrascias<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left of <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind). To all of <lb/>these, except that of <emph type="italics"/>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> the Greeks gave the names, and those <lb/>who do not distinguish the winds by so exact a plan, assert that the wind <lb/>which the Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">*ko/ros</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>Caurus<emph.end type="italics"/> is one and the same. <pb xlink:href="002/01/095.jpg" pagenum="59"/>Again, between <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind), the <lb/>first to the right of <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind) is <emph type="italics"/>Gallicus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Supernas;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Aquilo,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is the middle one of these five; next comes <emph type="italics"/>Boreas;<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>lastly <emph type="italics"/>Carbas,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left of <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind). Here again, those who <lb/>do not consider the winds to be in so great a multitude, but say there are <lb/>but twelve winds in all, or at the most fourteen, assert that the wind called <lb/><figure id="id.002.01.095.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/095/1.jpg"/><lb/>by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*bore/as</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>Aquílo<emph.end type="italics"/> is one and the same. </s>

<s>Between the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind) there is the <emph type="italics"/>Orníthíae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or the Bird wind, which has the first place next to the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/>comes <emph type="italics"/>Caecías;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Eurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which lies in the midway of these five; next <lb/>comes <emph type="italics"/>Vulturnus;<emph.end type="italics"/> and lastly, <emph type="italics"/>Euronotus,<emph.end type="italics"/> nearest the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind). <lb/>The Greeks have given these names to all of these, with the exception of <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Vulturnus,<emph.end type="italics"/> but those who do not distinguish the winds in so precise a manner <lb/>say this is the same as the Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">*eu)_ros.</foreign> Between the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south <lb/>wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Favonius<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind) is first <emph type="italics"/>Altanus,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the right of the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind); then <emph type="italics"/>Líbonotus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Afrícus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is the middle <lb/>one of these five; after that comes <emph type="italics"/>Subvesperus;<emph.end type="italics"/> next <emph type="italics"/>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left <lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind). All these, with the exception of <emph type="italics"/>Líbonotus<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"/> have Latin names; but <emph type="italics"/>Afrícus<emph.end type="italics"/> also is called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*ai/y.</foreign><lb/>In a similar manner, between <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind) and <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north <lb/>wind), first to the right of <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind), is the <emph type="italics"/>Etesíae;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Círcíus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is in the middle of these five; then <emph type="italics"/>Corus;<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and lastly <emph type="italics"/>Thrascias<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left of <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind). To all of <lb/>these, except that of <emph type="italics"/>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> the Greeks gave the names, and those <lb/>who do not distinguish the winds by so exact a plan, assert that the wind <lb/>which the Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">*ko/ros</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>Caurus<emph.end type="italics"/> is one and the same. <pb pagenum="59"/>Again, between <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind), the <lb/>first to the right of <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind) is <emph type="italics"/>Gallicus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Supernas;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Aquilo,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is the middle one of these five; next comes <emph type="italics"/>Boreas;<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>lastly <emph type="italics"/>Carbas,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left of <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind). Here again, those who <lb/>do not consider the winds to be in so great a multitude, but say there are <lb/>but twelve winds in all, or at the most fourteen, assert that the wind called <lb/><figure id="fig1"></figure><lb/>by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*bore/as</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>Aquílo<emph.end type="italics"/> is one and the same. </s>

<s>For our <lb/>purpose it is not only useful to adopt this large number of winds, but even <lb/>to double it, as the German sailors do. </s>

<s>They always reckon that between <lb/>each two there is one in the centre taken from both. </s>

<s>By this method we <pb xlink:href="002/01/096.jpg" pagenum="60"/>also are able to signify the intermediate directions by means of the names of <lb/>the winds. </s>

<s>By this method we <pb pagenum="60"/>also are able to signify the intermediate directions by means of the names of <lb/>the winds. </s>

<s>For instance, if a vein runs from VI east to VI west, it is said <lb/>to proceed from <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind) to <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind); but one <lb/>which proceeds from between V and VI of the east to between V and VI <lb/>west is said to proceed out of the middle of <emph type="italics"/>Carbas<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> to between <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Argestes<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus;<emph.end type="italics"/> the remaining directions, and their intermediates <lb/>are similarly designated. </s>

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<s>For if these incline <lb/>toward the west in depth, the vein is said to extend from east to west; <lb/>if on the contrary, they incline toward the east, the vein is said to go from <lb/>west to east. </s>

<s>In the same way, from the rock seams we can determine <lb/>veins running south and north, or the reverse, and likewise to the <lb/>subordinate directions and their intermediates.</s><figure id="id.002.01.096.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/096/1.jpg"/>

<s>A, B—<emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> C—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Further, as regards the question of direction of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> one <lb/>runs straight from one quarter of the earth to that quarter which is opposite, <lb/>while another one runs in a curve, in which case it may happen that a vein <lb/>proceeding from the east does not turn to the quarter opposite, which is the <lb/>west, but twists itself and turns to the south or the north.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/097.jpg" pagenum="61"/><figure id="id.002.01.097.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/097/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—STRAIGHT <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—CURVED <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> [should be <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/>(?)].</s>

<s>Similarly some <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> are horizontal, some are inclined, and <lb/>some are curved.</s><figure id="id.002.01.097.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/097/2.jpg"/>

<s>Similarly some <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> are horizontal, some are inclined, and <lb/>some are curved.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—HORIZONTAL <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—INCLINED <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> C—CURVED <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/098.jpg" pagenum="62"/>

<s>Also the veins which we call <emph type="italics"/>profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ in the manner in which <lb/>they descend into the depths of the earth; for some are vertical (A), some are <lb/>inclined and sloping (B), others crooked (C).</s><figure id="id.002.01.098.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/098/1.jpg"/>

<s>Also the veins which we call <emph type="italics"/>profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ in the manner in which <lb/>they descend into the depths of the earth; for some are vertical (A), some are <lb/>inclined and sloping (B), others crooked<gap/> (C).</s><figure></figure>

<s>Moreover, <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (B) differ much among themselves regarding <lb/>the kind of locality through which they pass, for some extend along the <lb/>slopes of mountains or hills (A-C) and do not descend down the sides.</s><figure id="id.002.01.098.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/098/2.jpg"/><pb xlink:href="002/01/099.jpg" pagenum="63"/>

<s>Other <emph type="italics"/>Venae Profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (D, E, F) from the very summit of the mountain <lb/>or hill descend the slope (A) to the hollow or valley (B), and they again ascend <lb/>the slope or the side of the mountain or hill opposite (C)</s><figure id="id.002.01.099.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/099/1.jpg"/>

<s>Other <emph type="italics"/>Venae Profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (C, D) descend the mountain or hill (A) and <lb/>extend out into the plain (B).</s><figure id="id.002.01.099.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/099/2.jpg"/><pb xlink:href="002/01/100.jpg" pagenum="64"/>

<s>Other <emph type="italics"/>Venae Profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (C, D) descend the mountain or hill (A) and <lb/>extend out into the plain (B).</s><figure></figure><pb pagenum="64"/>

<s>Some veins run straight along on the plateaux, the hills, or plains.</s><figure id="id.002.01.100.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/100/1.jpg"/>

<s>Some veins run straight along on the plateaux, the hills, or plains.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—MOUNTAINOUS PLAIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><figure id="id.002.01.100.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/100/2.jpg"/>

<s>A—MOUNTAINOUS PLAIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><figure></figure>

<s>A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—TRANSVERSE VEIN. C—VEIN CUTTING PRINCIPAL ONE <lb/>OBLIQUELY.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/101.jpg" pagenum="65"/>

<s>A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—TRANSVERSE VEIN. C—VEIN CUTTING PRINCIPAL ONE <lb/>OBLIQUELY.</s><pb pagenum="65"/>

<s>In the next place, <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ not a little in the manner in <lb/>which they intersect, since one may cross through a second transversely, or <lb/>one may cross another one obliquely as if cutting it in two.</s>

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<s>If it be softer, the <lb/>principal vein either drags the soft one with it for a distance of three feet, or <lb/>perhaps one, two, three, or several fathoms, or else throws it forward along <lb/>the principal vein; but this latter happens very rarely. </s>

<s>But that the vein <lb/>which cuts the principal one is the same vein on both sides, is shown by its <lb/>having the same character in its foot walls and hanging walls.</s><figure id="id.002.01.101.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/101/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—VEIN WHICH CUTS A OBLIQUELY. C—PART CARRIED AWAY. <lb/>D—THAT PART WHICH HAS BEEN CARRIED FORWARD.</s>

<s>Sometimes <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> join one with another, and from two or <lb/>more outcropping veins<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>, one is formed; or from two which do not outcrop <lb/>one is made, if they are not far distant from each other, and the one dips <lb/>into the other, or if each dips toward the other, and they thus join when they <lb/>have descended in depth. </s>

<s>In exactly the same way, out of three or more <lb/>veins, one may be formed in depth.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/102.jpg" pagenum="66"/><figure id="id.002.01.102.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/102/1.jpg"/>

<s>In exactly the same way, out of three or more <lb/>veins, one may be formed in depth.</s><pb pagenum="66"/><figure></figure>

<s>A, B—TWO VEINS DESCEND INCLINED AND DIP TOWARD EACH OTHER. <lb/>C—JUNCTION. LIKEWISE TWO VEINS. D—INDICATES ONE DESCENDING VERTICALLY. <lb/>E—MARKS THE OTHER DESCENDING INCLINED, WHICH DIPS TOWARD D. F—THEIR JUNCTION.</s><figure id="id.002.01.102.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/102/2.jpg"/><pb xlink:href="002/01/103.jpg" pagenum="67"/>

<s>A, B—TWO VEINS DESCEND INCLINED AND DIP TOWARD EACH OTHER. <lb/>C—JUNCTION. LIKEWISE TWO VEINS. D—INDICATES ONE DESCENDING VERTICALLY. <lb/>E—MARKS THE OTHER DESCENDING INCLINED, WHICH DIPS TOWARD D. F—THEIR JUNCTIO<gap/></s><figure></figure><pb pagenum="67"/>

<s>However, such a junction of veins sometimes disunites and in this <lb/>way it happens that the vein which was the right-hand vein becomes <lb/>the left; and again, the one which was on the left becomes the right.</s>

<s>Furthermore, one vein may be split and divided into parts by some hard <lb/>rock resembling a beak, or stringers in soft rock may sunder the vein and <lb/>make two or more. </s>

<s>These sometimes join together again and sometimes <lb/>remain divided.</s><figure id="id.002.01.103.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/103/1.jpg"/>

<s>These sometimes join together again and sometimes <lb/>remain divided.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A, B—VEINS DIVIDING. C—THE SAME JOINING.</s>

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<s>But enough of <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> their junctions and divisions. </s>

<s>Now <lb/>we come to <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> A <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> may either cross a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or join with it, or it may be cut by a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> and be divided into parts.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/104.jpg" pagenum="68"/><figure id="id.002.01.104.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/104/1.jpg"/>

<s>A, C—<emph type="italics"/>Vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> CROSSING A <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> D, E—<emph type="italics"/>Vena <lb/>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> WHICH JUNCTIONS WITH A <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> F—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> G—<emph type="italics"/>Vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>H, I—ITS DIVIDED PARTS. K—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> WHICH DIVIDES THE <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

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<s>Consequently the vein extends its tail toward the north if it is an inclined <lb/><emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Similarly, we can determine with regard to east and west <lb/>and the subordinate and their intermediate directions. </s>

<s>A <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which descends into the earth may be either vertical, inclined, or crooked, <lb/>the footwall of an inclined vein is easily distinguished from the hangingwall, <lb/>but it is not so with a vertical vein; and again, the footwall of a crooked <lb/>vein is inverted and changed into the hangingwall, and contrariwise the <lb/>hangingwall is twisted into the footwall, but very many of these crooked <lb/>veins may be turned back to vertical or inclined ones.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/105.jpg" pagenum="69"/><figure id="id.002.01.105.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/105/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—THE “BEGINNING” (<emph type="italics"/>origo<emph.end type="italics"/>). B—THE “END” (<emph type="italics"/>finis<emph.end type="italics"/>). C—THE “HEAD” (<emph type="italics"/>caput<emph.end type="italics"/>). <lb/>D—THE “TAIL” (<emph type="italics"/>cauda<emph.end type="italics"/>).</s>

<s>A <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> has only a “beginning” and an “end,” and in the place <lb/>of the “head” and “tail” it has two sides.</s><figure id="id.002.01.105.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/105/2.jpg"/>

<s>A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C, D—THE “SIDES.”</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/106.jpg" pagenum="70"/><figure id="id.002.01.106.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/106/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C, D—THE “SIDES.”</s><pb pagenum="70"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C—THE “HEAD.” D—THE “TAIL.” <lb/>E—TRANSVERSE VEIN.</s>

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<s>The <emph type="italics"/>fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"/> does not descend as deeply into the earth as the <lb/>other stringers, but lies on the vein, as it were, from the surface to the <lb/>hangingwall or footwall, from which it is named <emph type="italics"/>Subdialis.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>In truth, as to direction, junctions, and divisions, the stringers are not <lb/>different from the veins.<lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/107.jpg" pagenum="71"/><figure id="id.002.01.107.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/107/1.jpg"/>

<s>In truth, as to direction, junctions, and divisions, the stringers are not <lb/>different from the veins.<lb/></s><pb pagenum="71"/><figure></figure>

<s>A, B—VEINS. C—TRANSVERSE STRINGER. D—OBLIQUE STRINGER. <lb/>E—ASSOCIATED STRINGER. F—<emph type="italics"/>Fibra dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/></s><figure id="id.002.01.107.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/107/2.jpg"/>

<s>A—VEIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"/> FROM THE SURFACE OF THE HANGINGWALL. C—SAME <lb/>FROM THE FOOTWALL.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/108.jpg" pagenum="72"/>

<s>A—VEIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"/> FROM THE SURFACE OF THE HANGINGWALL. C—SAME <lb/>FROM THE FOOTWALL.</s><pb pagenum="72"/>

<s>Lastly, the seams, which are the very finest stringers (<emph type="italics"/>fibrae<emph.end type="italics"/>), divide <lb/>the rock, and occur sometimes frequently, sometimes rarely. </s>

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<s>But, while the seams usually run <lb/>from one point of the compass to another immediately opposite it, as <lb/>for instance, from east to west, if hard stringers divert them, it may <lb/>happen that these very seams, which before were running from east to <lb/>west, then contrariwise proceed from west to east, and the direction of <lb/>the rocks is thus inverted. </s>

<s>In such a case, the direction of the veins is <lb/>judged, not by the direction of the seams which occur rarely, but by those <lb/>which constantly recur.</s><figure id="id.002.01.108.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/108/1.jpg"/>

<s>In such a case, the direction of the veins is <lb/>judged, not by the direction of the seams which occur rarely, but by those <lb/>which constantly recur.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—SEAMS WHICH PROCEED FROM THE EAST. B—THE INVERSE.</s>

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<s>Those which <lb/>are barren of minerals often carry water. </s>

<s>Solid veins and stringers con<lb/>sist sometimes of hard materials, sometimes of soft, and sometimes of a <lb/>kind of medium between the two.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/109.jpg" pagenum="73"/><figure id="id.002.01.109.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/109/1.jpg"/>

<s>Solid veins and stringers con<lb/>sist sometimes of hard materials, sometimes of soft, and sometimes of a <lb/>kind of medium between the two.</s><pb pagenum="73"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—SOLID VEIN. B—SOLID STRINGER. C—CAVERNOUS VEIN. D—CAVERNOUS <lb/>STRINGER. E—BARREN VEIN. F—BARREN STRINGER.</s>

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<s>A great number of miners consider<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> that the <lb/>best veins in depth are those which run from the VI or VII direction of the <lb/>east to the VI or VII direction of the west, through a mountain slope which <lb/>inclines to the north; and whose hangingwalls are in the south, and whose <lb/>footwalls are in the north, and which have their heads rising to the north, <lb/>as explained before, always like the footwall, and finally, whose rock <lb/>seams turn their heads to the east. </s>

<s>And the veins which are the next <pb xlink:href="002/01/110.jpg" pagenum="74"/>best are those which, on the contrary, extend from the VI or VII direction <lb/>of the west to the VI or VII direction of the east, through the slope of a <lb/>mountain which similarly inclines to the north. </s>

<s>And the veins which are the next <pb pagenum="74"/>best are those which, on the contrary, extend from the VI or VII direction <lb/>of the west to the VI or VII direction of the east, through the slope of a <lb/>mountain which similarly inclines to the north. </s>

<s>whose hangingwalls <lb/>are also in the south, whose footwalls are in the north, and whose <lb/>heads rise toward the north; and lastly, whose rock seams raise <lb/>their heads toward the west. </s>

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<s>But in <lb/>this matter the actual experience of the miners who thus judge of the veins <lb/>does not always agree with their opinions, nor is their reasoning sound; <lb/>since indeed the veins which run from east to west through the slope of a <lb/>mountain which inclines to the south, whose heads rise likewise to the <lb/>south, are not less charged with metals, than those to which miners are <lb/>wont to accord the first place in productiveness; as in recent years has been <lb/>proved by the St. </s>

<s>Lorentz vein at Abertham, which our countrymen call <lb/>Gottsgaab, for they have dug out of it a large quantity of pure silver; and <lb/>lately a vein in Annaberg, called by the name of Himmelsch hoz<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>, has made it <pb xlink:href="002/01/111.jpg" pagenum="75"/>plain by the production of much silver that veins which extend from the <lb/>north to the south, with their heads rising toward the west, are no less rich <lb/>in metals than those whose heads rise toward the east.</s>

<s>Lorentz vein at Abertham, which our countrymen call <lb/>Gottsgaab, for they have dug out of it a large quantity of pure silver; and <lb/>lately a vein in Annaberg, called by the name of Himmelsch hoz<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>, has made it <pb pagenum="75"/>plain by the production of much silver that veins which extend from the <lb/>north to the south, with their heads rising toward the west, are no less rich <lb/>in metals than those whose heads rise toward the east.</s>

<s>It may be denied that the heat of the sun draws the metallic material <lb/>out of these veins; for though it draws up vapours from the surface of the <lb/>ground, the rays of the sun do not penetrate right down to the depths; because <lb/>the air of a tunnel which is covered and enveloped by solid earth to the depth of <lb/>only two fathoms is cold in summer, for the intermediate earth holds in check <lb/>the force of the sun. </s>

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<s>In the third <lb/>place, they esteem the river or the stream which flows from the north to the <lb/>south and washes the base of the mountains which are situated in the east. <lb/></s>

<s>But they say that the river or stream is least productive of gold which flows <lb/>in a contrary direction from the south to the north, and washes the base of <pb xlink:href="002/01/112.jpg" pagenum="76"/>mountains which are situated in the west. </s>

<s>But they say that the river or stream is least productive of gold which flows <lb/>in a contrary direction from the south to the north, and washes the base of <pb pagenum="76"/>mountains which are situated in the west. </s>

<s>Lastly, of the streams or rivers <lb/>which flow from the rising sun toward the setting sun, or which flow from <lb/>the northern parts to the southern parts, they favour those which approach <lb/>the nearest to the lauded ones, and say they are more productive of gold, <lb/>and the further they depart from them the less productive they are. </s>

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<s>Nevertheless, we do not deny that gold is generated <lb/>in veins and stringers which lie under the beds of rivers or streams, as in <lb/>other places.<lb/></s>

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<s>The size of <lb/>a meer is measured by fathoms, which for miners are reckoned at six feet <lb/>each. </s>

<s>The length, in fact, is that of a man's extended arms and hands <lb/>measured across his chest; but different peoples assign to it different lengths, <pb xlink:href="002/01/114.jpg" pagenum="78"/>for among the Greeks, who called it an <foreign lang="greek">o/rguia/,</foreign> it was six feet, among the <lb/>Romans five feet. </s>

<s>The length, in fact, is that of a man's extended arms and hands <lb/>measured across his chest; but different peoples assign to it different lengths, <pb pagenum="78"/>for among the Greeks, who called it an <foreign lang="greek">o/rguia/,</foreign> it was six feet, among the <lb/>Romans five feet. </s>

<s>So this measure which is used by miners seems to <lb/>have come down to the Germans in accordance with the Greek mode of <lb/>reckoning. </s>

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<s>Thus, if the <lb/>shape of a “measure” is seven fathoms on every side, this number multi<lb/>plied by itself makes forty-nine square fathoms.</s>

<s>The sides of a long meer are of equal length, and similarly its ends are <lb/>equal; therefore, if the number of fathoms in one of the long sides be multi<lb/>plied by the number of fathoms in one of the ends, the total produced by the </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/115.jpg" pagenum="79"/><figure id="id.002.01.115.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/115/1.jpg"/>

<s>SHAPE OF A SQUARE MEER.<lb/>multiplication is the total number of square fathoms in the long meer. </s>

<s>For <lb/>example, the double measure is fourteen fathoms long and seven broad, <lb/>which two numbers multiplied together make ninety-eight square fathoms.</s><figure id="id.002.01.115.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/115/2.jpg"/>

<s>SHAPE OF A LONG MEER OR DOUBLE MEASURE.</s>

<s>Since meers vary in shape according to the different varieties of veins <lb/>it is necessary for me to go more into detail concerning them and <lb/>their measurements. </s>

<s>If the vein is a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> the head meer is <lb/>composed of three double measures, therefore it is forty-two fathoms in <lb/>length and seven in width, which numbers multiplied together give two <lb/>hundred and ninety-four square fathoms, and by these limits the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>bounds the owner's rights in a head-meer.</s><figure id="id.002.01.115.3.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/115/3.jpg"/>

<s>SHAPE OF A HEAD MEER.</s>

<s>The area of every other meer consists of two double measures, on which<lb/>ever side of the head meer it lies, or whatever its number in order may be, <lb/>that is to say, whether next to the head meer, or second, third, or any later <lb/>number. </s>

<s>Therefore, it is twenty-eight fathoms long and seven wide, so <lb/>multiplying the length by the width we get one hundred and ninety-six <lb/>square fathoms, which is the extent of the meer, and by these boundaries <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> defines the right of the owner or company over each mine.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/116.jpg" pagenum="80"/><figure id="id.002.01.116.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/116/1.jpg"/>

<s>SHAPE OF A MEER.</s>

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<s>It is the custom among miners that <lb/>the first meer beyond a stream on that part of the vein on the opposite <lb/>side is a new head-meer, and they call it the “opposite,”<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> while the <lb/>other meers beyond are only ordinary meers. </s>

<s>Formerly every head-meer <lb/>was composed of three double measures and one single one, that is, it was <lb/>forty-nine fathoms long and seven wide, and so if we multiply these two <lb/>together we have three hundred and forty-three square fathoms, which <lb/>total gives us the area of an ancient head-meer.</s><figure id="id.002.01.116.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/116/2.jpg"/>

<s>SHAPE OF AN ANCIENT HEAD-MEER.</s>

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<s>In <lb/>memory of which miners even now call the width of every meer which is <lb/>located on a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> a “square”<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>The following was formerly the <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/117.jpg" pagenum="81"/>usual method of delimiting a vein: as soon as the miner found metal, he <lb/>gave information to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the tithe-gatherer, who either <lb/>proceeded personally from the town to the mountains, or sent thither men <lb/>of good repute, at least two in number, to inspect the metal-bearing vein. <lb/></s>

<s>The following was formerly the <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="81"/>usual method of delimiting a vein: as soon as the miner found metal, he <lb/>gave information to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the tithe-gatherer, who either <lb/>proceeded personally from the town to the mountains, or sent thither men <lb/>of good repute, at least two in number, to inspect the metal-bearing vein. <lb/></s>

<s>Thereupon, if they thought it of sufficient importance to survey, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>again having gone forth on an appointed day, thus questioned him who first <lb/>found the vein, concerning the vein and the diggings: “Which is your <lb/>vein?” “Which digging carried metal?” Then the discoverer, pointing <lb/>his finger to his vein and diggings, indicated them, and next the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>ordered him to approach the windlass and place two fingers of his right hand <lb/>upon his head, and swear this oath in a clear voice: “I swear by God and <lb/>all the Saints, and I call them all to witness, that this is my vein; and more<lb/>over if it is not mine, may neither this my head nor these my hands henceforth <lb/>perform their functions.” Then the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> having started from the <lb/>centre of the windlass, proceeded to measure the vein with a cord, and to <lb/>give the measured portion to the discoverer,—in the first instance a half and <lb/>then three full measures; afterward one to the King or Prince, another to <lb/>his Consort, a third to the Master of the Horse, a fourth to the Cup-bearer, <lb/>a fifth to the Groom of the Chamber, a sixth to himself. </s>

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<s>Of the width of every meer, whether old or new, one-half lies on the <lb/>footwall side of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> and one half on the hangingwall side. </s>

<s>If <lb/>the vein descends vertically into the earth, the boundaries similarly descend <pb xlink:href="002/01/118.jpg" pagenum="82"/>vertically; but if the vein inclines, the boundaries likewise will be inclined. <lb/></s>

<s>If <lb/>the vein descends vertically into the earth, the boundaries similarly descend <pb pagenum="82"/>vertically; but if the vein inclines, the boundaries likewise will be inclined. <lb/></s>

<s>The owner always holds the mining right for the width of the meer, however <lb/>far the vein descends into the depth of the earth.<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> Further, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>on application being made to him, grants to one owner or company a right <pb xlink:href="002/01/119.jpg" pagenum="83"/>over not only the head meer, or another meer, but also the head meer and <lb/>the next meer or two adjoining meers. </s>

<s>The owner always holds the mining right for the width of the meer, however <lb/>far the vein descends into the depth of the earth.<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> Further, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>on application being made to him, grants to one owner or company a right <pb pagenum="83"/>over not only the head meer, or another meer, but also the head meer and <lb/>the next meer or two adjoining meers. </s>

<s>So much for the shape of meers <lb/>and their dimensions in the case of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>I now come to the case of <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The boundaries of the areas <pb xlink:href="002/01/120.jpg" pagenum="84"/>on such veins are not all measured by one method. </s>

<s>I now come to the case of <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The boundaries of the areas <pb pagenum="84"/>on such veins are not all measured by one method. </s>

<s>For in some places the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> gives them shapes similar to the shapes of the meers on <emph type="italics"/>venae <lb/>profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> in which case the head-meer is composed of three double <lb/>measures, and the area of every other mine of two measures, as I have <pb xlink:href="002/01/121.jpg" pagenum="85"/>explained more fully above. </s>

<s>In this case, however, he measures the meers <lb/>with a cord, not only forward and backward from the ends of the head<lb/>meer, as he is wont to do in the case where the owner of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> has <lb/>a meer granted him, but also from the sides. </s>

<s>In this way meers are marked <pb xlink:href="002/01/122.jpg" pagenum="86"/>out when a torrent or some other force of Nature has laid open a <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>dílatata<emph.end type="italics"/> in a valley, so that it appears either on the slope of a mountain <lb/>or hill or on a plain. </s>

<s>In this way meers are marked <pb pagenum="86"/>out when a torrent or some other force of Nature has laid open a <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>dílatata<emph.end type="italics"/> in a valley, so that it appears either on the slope of a mountain <lb/>or hill or on a plain. </s>

<s>Elsewhere the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> doubles the width of the <lb/>head-meer and it is made fourteen fathoms wide, while the width of each of <lb/>the other meers remains single, that is seven fathoms, but the length is not <lb/>defined by boundaries. </s>

<s>In some places the head-meer consists of three <lb/>double measures, but has a width of fourteen fathoms and a length of <lb/>twenty-one.</s><figure id="id.002.01.122.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/122/1.jpg"/>

<s>In some places the head-meer consists of three <lb/>double measures, but has a width of fourteen fathoms and a length of <lb/>twenty-one.</s><figure></figure>

<s>SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.</s>

<s>In the same way, every other meer is composed of two measures, <lb/>doubled in the same fashion, so that it is fourteen fathoms in width and <lb/>of the same length.</s><figure id="id.002.01.122.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/122/2.jpg"/>

<s>SHAPE OF EVERY OTHER MEER.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/123.jpg" pagenum="87"/>

<s>SHAPE OF EVERY OTHER MEER.</s><pb pagenum="87"/>

<s>Elsewhere every meer, whether a head-meer or other meer, comprises <lb/>forty-two fathoms in width and as many in length.</s>

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<s>Finally, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> divides <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/> areas in different ways, <lb/>for in some localities the head-meer is composed of three measures, doubled <lb/>in such a way that it is fourteen fathoms wide and twenty-one long; and <lb/>every other meer consists of two measures doubled, and is square, that is, <lb/>fourteen fathoms wide and as many long. </s>

<s>In some places the head-meer <lb/>is composed of three single measures, and its width is seven fathoms and <lb/>its length twenty-one, which two numbers multiplied together make one <lb/>hundred and forty-seven square fathoms.</s><figure id="id.002.01.123.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/123/1.jpg"/>

<s>SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.</s>

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<s>By this method in former times the boundaries of the <lb/>fields were marked by stones or posts, not only as written of in the book “<emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Limítíbus Agrorum,<emph.end type="italics"/>”<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> but also as testified to by the songs of the poets. </s>

<s>Such <pb xlink:href="002/01/124.jpg" pagenum="88"/>then is the shape of the meers, varying in accordance with the different <lb/>kinds of veins.</s>

<s>Such <pb pagenum="88"/>then is the shape of the meers, varying in accordance with the different <lb/>kinds of veins.</s>

<s>Now tunnels are of two sorts, one kind having no right of property, the <lb/>other kind having some limited right. </s>

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<s>But if the lower tunnel does not yet drain the shaft of <lb/>that meer nor supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug out <lb/>below the bottom of the higher tunnel, one-ninth part is given to the owner <lb/>of such upper tunnel. </s>

<s>Moreover, no one tunnel deprives another of its <lb/>right to one-ninth part, unless it be a lower one, from the bottom of which <lb/>to the bottom of the one above must not be less than seven or ten fathoms, <pb xlink:href="002/01/125.jpg" pagenum="89"/>according as the king or prince has decreed. </s>

<s>Moreover, no one tunnel deprives another of its <lb/>right to one-ninth part, unless it be a lower one, from the bottom of which <lb/>to the bottom of the one above must not be less than seven or ten fathoms, <pb pagenum="89"/>according as the king or prince has decreed. </s>

<s>Further, of all the money <lb/>which the owner of the tunnel has spent on his tunnel while driving it <lb/>through a meer, the owner of that meer pays one-fourth part. </s>

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<s>When, <lb/>however, he had driven a tunnel as far as the old shafts and had found <lb/>metal, he used to return to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and request him to bound and <lb/>mark off the extent of his right to a meer. </s>

<s>Thereupon, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>together with a certain number of citizens of the town—in whose place <lb/>Jurors have now succeeded—used to proceed to the mountain and mark off <lb/>with boundary stones a large meer, which consisted of seven double <lb/>measures, that is to say, it was ninety-eight fathoms long and seven wide, <lb/>which two numbers multiplied together make six hundred and eighty-six <lb/>square fathoms.</s><figure id="id.002.01.125.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/125/1.jpg"/>

<s>LARGE AREA.</s>

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<s>One owner is allowed to possess and to work <lb/>one, two, three, or more whole meers, or similarly one or more separate <lb/>tunnels, provided he conforms to the decrees of the laws relating to <lb/>metals, and to the orders of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> And because he alone pro<lb/>vides the expenditure of money on the mines, if they yield metal he alone <lb/>obtains the product from them. </s>

<s>But when large and frequent expenditures <lb/>are necessary in mining, he to whom the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> first gave the right <pb xlink:href="002/01/126.jpg" pagenum="90"/>often admits others to share with him, and they join with him in forming a <lb/>company, and they each lay out a part of the expense and share with him <lb/>the profit or loss of the mine. </s>

<s>But when large and frequent expenditures <lb/>are necessary in mining, he to whom the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> first gave the right <pb pagenum="90"/>often admits others to share with him, and they join with him in forming a <lb/>company, and they each lay out a part of the expense and share with him <lb/>the profit or loss of the mine. </s>

<s>But the title of the mines or tunnels remains <lb/>undivided, although for the purpose of dividing the expense and profit it <lb/>may be said each mine or tunnel is divided into parts<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s>

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<s>A mine, and the same thing <lb/>must be understood with regard to a tunnel, may be divided into two halves, <lb/>that is into two similar portions, by which method two owners spend <lb/>an equal amount on it and draw an equal profit from it, for each possesses <lb/>one half. </s>

<s>Sometimes it is divided into four shares, by which compact <lb/>four persons can be owners, so that each possesses one-fourth, or also two <lb/>persons, so that one possesses three-fourths, and the other only one-fourth:<lb/>or three owners, so that the first has two-fourths, and the second and third <lb/>one-fourth each. </s>

<s>Sometimes it is divided into four shares, by which compact <lb/>four persons can be owners, so that each possesses one-fourth, or also two <lb/>persons, so that one possesses three-fourths, and the other only one-fourth<gap/><lb/>or three owners, so that the first has two-fourths, and the second and third <lb/>one-fourth each. </s>

<s>Sometimes it is divided into eight shares, by which plan <lb/>there may be eight owners, so that each is possessor of one-eighth; some<lb/>times there are two owners, so that one has five-sixths<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> together with one <lb/>twenty-fourth, and the other one-eighth; or there may be three owners, in <lb/>which one has three-quarters and the second and third each one-eighth; <lb/>or it may be divided so that one owner has seven-twelfths, together with <lb/>one twenty-fourth, a second owner has one-quarter, and a third owner has <lb/>one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half, the second one-third and one <lb/>twenty-fourth, and the third one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half, <lb/>as before, and the second and third each one-quarter; or so that the first <lb/>and second each have one-third and one twenty-fourth, and the third one<lb/>quarter; and in the same way the divisions may be adjusted in all the other <lb/>proportions. </s>

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<s>But a lead, bismuth, or tin mine, and likewise one of copper or even <lb/>quicksilver, is also divided into eight shares, or into sixteen or thirty-two, <lb/>and less commonly into sixty-four. </s>

<s>The number of the divisions of the silver <lb/>mines at Freiberg in Meissen did not formerly progress beyond this; but <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/127.jpg" pagenum="91"/>within the memory of our fathers, miners have divided a silver mine, and <lb/>similarly the tunnel at Schneeberg, first of all into one hundred and twenty<lb/>eight shares, of which one hundred and twenty-six are the property of <lb/>private owners in the mines or tunnels, one belongs to the State and one <lb/>to the Church; while in Joachimsthal only one hundred and twenty-two <lb/>shares of the mines or tunnels are the property of private owners, four <lb/>are proprietary shares, and the State and Church each have one in the <lb/>same way. </s>

<s>The number of the divisions of the silver <lb/>mines at Freiberg in Meissen did not formerly progress beyond this; but <lb/><pb pagenum="91"/>within the memory of our fathers, miners have divided a silver mine, and <lb/>similarly the tunnel at Schneeberg, first of all into one hundred and twenty<lb/>eight shares, of which one hundred and twenty-six are the property of <lb/>private owners in the mines or tunnels, one belongs to the State and one <lb/>to the Church; while in Joachimsthal only one hundred and twenty-two <lb/>shares of the mines or tunnels are the property of private owners, four <lb/>are proprietary shares, and the State and Church each have one in the <lb/>same way. </s>

<s>To these there has lately been added in some places one share <lb/>for the most needy of the population, which makes one hundred and twenty<lb/>nine shares. </s>

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<s>Indeed, from the St. </s>

<s>George mine in Schneeberg the miners extracted <lb/>so much silver in a quarter of a year that silver cakes, which were worth <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/128.jpg" pagenum="92"/>1,100 Rhenish guldens, were distributed to each one hundred and twenty-eighth <lb/>share. </s>

<s>George mine in Schneeberg the miners extracted <lb/>so much silver in a quarter of a year that silver cakes, which were worth <lb/><pb pagenum="92"/>1,100 Rhenish guldens, were distributed to each one hundred and twenty-eighth <lb/>share. </s>

<s>From the Annaberg mine which is known as the Himmelich Höz, <lb/>they had a dole of eight hundred thaler; from a mine in Joachimsthal <lb/>which is named the Sternen, three hundred thaler; from the head mine at <lb/>Abertham, which is called St. </s>

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<s>Formerly owners used to obtain a right over any tunnel, firstly, if <lb/>in its bottom they made drains and cleansed them of mud and sand so that <lb/>the water might flow out without any hindrance, and restored those drains <lb/>which had been damaged; secondly, if they provided shafts or openings to <lb/>supply the miners with air, and restored those which had fallen in; and <lb/>finally, if three miners were employed continuously in driving the tunnel. <lb/></s>

<s>But the principal reason for losing the title to a tunnel was that for a period <lb/>of eight days no miner was employed upon it; therefore, when anyone <lb/>was able to prove by witnesses that the owners of a tunnel had not done <lb/>these things, he brought his accusation before the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> who, after <lb/>going out from the town to the tunnel and inspecting the drains and the <lb/>ventilating machines and everything else, and finding the charge to be true, <lb/>placed the witness under oath, and asked him: “Whose tunnel is this at the <lb/>present time?” The witness would reply: “The King's” or “The <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/129.jpg" pagenum="93"/>Prince's.” Thereupon the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> gave the right over the tunnel to <lb/>the first applicant. </s>

<s>But the principal reason for losing the title to a tunnel was that for a period <lb/>of eight days no miner was employed upon it; therefore, when anyone <lb/>was able to prove by witnesses that the owners of a tunnel had not done <lb/>these things, he brought his accusation before the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> who, after <lb/>going out from the town to the tunnel and inspecting the drains and the <lb/>ventilating machines and everything else, and finding the charge to be true, <lb/>placed the witness under oath, and asked him: “Whose tunnel is this at the <lb/>present time?” The witness would reply: “The King's” or “The <lb/><pb pagenum="93"/>Prince's.” Thereupon the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> gave the right over the tunnel to <lb/>the first applicant. </s>

<s>This was the severe rule under which the owners at one <lb/>time lost their rights over a tunnel; but its severity is now considerably <lb/>mitigated, for the owners do not now forthwith lose their right over a tunnel <lb/>through not having cleaned out the drains and restored the shafts or <lb/>ventilation holes which have suffered damage; but the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> orders <lb/>the tunnel manager to do it, and if he does not obey, the authorities fine <lb/>the tunnel. </s>

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<s>To-day this custom is un<lb/>changed, for if owners fail for the space of a month to pay the contribu<lb/>tions which the manager of the mine has imposed on them, on a stated day <lb/>their names are proclaimed aloud and struck off the list of owners, in <lb/>the presence of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> the Jurors, the Mining Clerk, and the Share <lb/>Clerk, and each of such shares is entered on the proscribed list. </s>

<s>If, how<pb xlink:href="002/01/130.jpg" pagenum="94"/>ever, on the third, or at latest the fourth day, they pay their contributions <lb/>to the manager of the mine or tunnel, and pay the money which is due from <lb/>them to the Share Clerk, he removes their shares from the proscribed <lb/>list. </s>

<s>If, how<pb pagenum="94"/>ever, on the third, or at latest the fourth day, they pay their contributions <lb/>to the manager of the mine or tunnel, and pay the money which is due from <lb/>them to the Share Clerk, he removes their shares from the proscribed <lb/>list. </s>

<s>They are not thereupon restored to their former position unless the <lb/>other owners consent; in which respect the custom now in use differs from <lb/>the old practice, for to-day if the owners of shares constituting anything <lb/>over half the mine consent to the restoration of those who have been <lb/>proscribed, the others are obliged to consent whether they wish to or not. <lb/></s>

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<s>He <lb/>governs and regulates everything at his discretion, ordering those things <lb/>which are useful and advantageous in mining operations, and prohibiting <lb/>those which are to the contrary. </s>

<s>He levies penalties and punishes offenders; <lb/>he arranges disputes which the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> has been unable to settle, and if <lb/>even he cannot arrange them, he allows the owners who are at variance over <lb/>some point to proceed to litigation; he even lays down the law, gives orders <pb xlink:href="002/01/131.jpg" pagenum="95"/>as a magistrate, or bids them leave their rights in abeyance, and he deter<lb/>mines the pay of persons who hold any post or office. </s>

<s>He levies penalties and punishes offenders; <lb/>he arranges disputes which the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> has been unable to settle, and if <lb/>even he cannot arrange them, he allows the owners who are at variance over <lb/>some point to proceed to litigation; he even lays down the law, gives orders <pb pagenum="95"/>as a magistrate, or bids them leave their rights in abeyance, and he deter<lb/>mines the pay of persons who hold any post or office. </s>

<s>He is present in <lb/>person when the mine managers present their quarterly accounts of profits <lb/>and expenses, and generally represents the King or Prince and upholds his <lb/>dignity. </s>

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<s>He also affixes at the entrance to the mine, quarterly, at the appointed time, <lb/>a sheet of paper on which is shown how much contribution must be paid to <lb/>the manager of the mine. </s>

<s>These notices are prepared jointly with the <pb xlink:href="002/01/132.jpg" pagenum="96"/>Mining Clerk, and in common they receive the fee rendered by the foremen <lb/>of the separate mines.</s>

<s>These notices are prepared jointly with the <pb pagenum="96"/>Mining Clerk, and in common they receive the fee rendered by the foremen <lb/>of the separate mines.</s>

<s>I now come to the Jurors, who are men experienced in mining <lb/>matters and of good repute. </s>

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<s>A document containing all these <lb/>particulars is also given to the person whose right over a mine has been <lb/>confirmed. </s>

<s>The Mining Clerk also sets down in another book the names <lb/>of the owners of each mine over which the right has been confirmed; <lb/>in another any intermission of work permitted to any person for cer<pb xlink:href="002/01/133.jpg" pagenum="97"/>tain reasons by the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister;<emph.end type="italics"/> in another the money which one mine <lb/>supplies to another for drawing off water or making machinery; and in <lb/>another the decisions of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Jurors, and the disputes <lb/>settled by them as honorary arbitrators. </s>

<s>The Mining Clerk also sets down in another book the names <lb/>of the owners of each mine over which the right has been confirmed; <lb/>in another any intermission of work permitted to any person for cer<pb pagenum="97"/>tain reasons by the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister;<emph.end type="italics"/> in another the money which one mine <lb/>supplies to another for drawing off water or making machinery; and in <lb/>another the decisions of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Jurors, and the disputes <lb/>settled by them as honorary arbitrators. </s>

<s>All these matters he enters in the <lb/>books on Wednesday of every week; if holidays fall on that day he does it <lb/>on the following Thursday. </s>

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<s>But in the case of a mine which is yielding metal, the Tithe<lb/>gatherer pays the mine manager week by week as much money as suffices <lb/>to discharge the workmen's wages and to provide the necessary implements <lb/>for mining. </s>

<s>The mine manager of each mine also, in the presence of its <lb/>foreman, on Saturday in each week renders an account of his expenses to <pb xlink:href="002/01/134.jpg" pagenum="98"/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Jurors, he renders an account of his receipts, <lb/>whether the money has been contributed by the owners or taken from the <lb/>Tithe-gatherer; and of his quarterly expenditure in the same way <lb/>to them and to the Mining Prefect and to the Mining Clerk, four <lb/>times a year at the appointed time; for just as there are four seasons <lb/>of the year, namely, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, so there are <lb/>fourfold accounts of profits and expenses. </s>

<s>The mine manager of each mine also, in the presence of its <lb/>foreman, on Saturday in each week renders an account of his expenses to <pb pagenum="98"/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Jurors, he renders an account of his receipts, <lb/>whether the money has been contributed by the owners or taken from the <lb/>Tithe-gatherer; and of his quarterly expenditure in the same way <lb/>to them and to the Mining Prefect and to the Mining Clerk, four <lb/>times a year at the appointed time; for just as there are four seasons <lb/>of the year, namely, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, so there are <lb/>fourfold accounts of profits and expenses. </s>

<s>In the beginning of the first <lb/>month of each quarter an account is rendered of the money which the <lb/>manager has spent on the mine during the previous quarter, then of the <lb/>profit which he has taken from it during the same period; for example, <lb/>the account which is rendered at the beginning of spring is an account of all <lb/>the profits and expenses of each separate week of winter, which have been <lb/>entered by the Mining Clerk in the book of accounts. </s>

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<s>If, however, several mines following the <lb/>head-mine begin to produce metal, he remains in charge of these others until <lb/>he is freed from the duty of looking after them by the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Last of <lb/>all, the manager, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the two Jurors, in agreement <lb/>with the owners, settle the remuneration for the labourers. </s>

<s>Enough of the <lb/>duties and occupation of the manager.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/135.jpg" pagenum="99"/>

<s>Enough of the <lb/>duties and occupation of the manager.</s><pb pagenum="99"/>

<s>I will now leave the manager, and discuss him who controls the workmen <lb/>of the mine, who is therefore called the foreman, although some call him <lb/>the watchman. </s>

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<s>Elsewhere he <lb/>is allowed to do so, because he cannot subsist on the pay of one shift, <lb/>especially if provisions grow dearer. </s>

<s>The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> does not, however, <lb/>forbid an extraordinary shift when he concedes only one ordinary shift. <pb xlink:href="002/01/136.jpg" pagenum="100"/>When it is time to go to work the sound of a great bell, which the foreigners <lb/>call a “campana,” gives the workmen warning, and when this is heard they <lb/>run hither and thither through the streets toward the mines. </s>

<s>The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> does not, however, <lb/>forbid an extraordinary shift when he concedes only one ordinary shift. <pb pagenum="100"/>When it is time to go to work the sound of a great bell, which the foreigners <lb/>call a “campana,” gives the workmen warning, and when this is heard they <lb/>run hither and thither through the streets toward the mines. </s>

<s>Similarly, <lb/>the same sound of the bell warns the foreman that a shift has just been <lb/>finished; therefore as soon as he hears it, he stamps on the woodwork of the <lb/>shaft and signals the workmen to come out. </s>

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<s>As to the government and duties of miners, I have <lb/>now said enough; I will explain them more fully in another work entitled <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Jure et Legibus Metallícís<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s>

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<s>First <lb/>then, I will proceed to deal with those matters <lb/>which pertain to the former heading, since both the <lb/>subject and methodical arrangement require it. <lb/></s>

<s>And so I will describe first of all the digging of <lb/>shafts, tunnels, and drifts on <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae;<emph.end type="italics"/> next I will discuss the good <lb/>indications shown by <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>, by the materials which are dug out, and by <lb/>the rocks; then I will speak of the tools by which veins and rocks are broken <lb/>down and excavated; the method by which fire shatters the hard veins; <lb/>and further, of the machines with which water is drawn from the shafts <lb/>and air is forced into deep shafts and long tunnels, for digging is impeded <lb/>by the inrush of the former or the failure of the latter; next I will deal <lb/>with the two kinds of shafts, and with the making of them and of tunnels; <lb/>and finally, I will describe the method of mining <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae, venae cumu<lb/>latae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and stringers.<lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/138.jpg" pagenum="102"/>

<s>Now when a miner discovers a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> he begins sinking a shaft <lb/>and above it sets up a windlass, and builds a shed over the shaft to prevent <lb/>the rain from falling in, lest the men who turn the windlass be numbed <lb/>by the cold or troubled by the rain. </s>

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<s>It is advantageous if a shaft connects with a tunnel, for then the miners <lb/>and other workmen carry on more easily the work they have undertaken; <lb/>but if the shaft is not so deep, it is usual to drift from one or both sides of it. <lb/></s>

<s>From these openings the owner or foreman becomes acquainted with the <lb/>veins and stringers that unite with the principal vein, or cut across it, or <pb xlink:href="002/01/139.jpg" pagenum="103"/>divide it obliquely; however, my discourse is now concerned mainly with <lb/><emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> but most of all with the metallic material which it contains. </s><figure id="id.002.01.139.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/139/1.jpg"/>

<s>From these openings the owner or foreman becomes acquainted with the <lb/>veins and stringers that unite with the principal vein, or cut across it, or <pb pagenum="103"/>divide it obliquely; however, my discourse is now concerned mainly with <lb/><emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> but most of all with the metallic material which it contains. </s><figure></figure>

<s>THREE VERTICAL SHAFTS, OF WHICH THE FIRST, A, DOES NOT REACH THE TUNNEL; THE <lb/>SECOND, B, REACHES THE TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN <lb/>DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.<pb xlink:href="002/01/140.jpg" pagenum="104"/>Excavations of this kind were called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">kruptai</foreign> for, extending <lb/>along after the manner of a tunnel, they are entirely hidden within the </s><figure id="id.002.01.140.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/140/1.jpg"/>

<s>THREE VERTICAL SHAFTS, OF WHICH THE FIRST, A, DOES NOT REACH THE TUNNEL; THE <lb/>SECOND, B, REACHES THE TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN <lb/>DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.<pb pagenum="104"/>Excavations of this kind were called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">kruptai</foreign> for, extending <lb/>along after the manner of a tunnel, they are entirely hidden within the </s><figure></figure>

<s>THREE INCLINED SHAFTS, OF WHICH A DOES NOT YET REACH THE TUNNEL; B REACHES THE <lb/>TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.<pb xlink:href="002/01/141.jpg" pagenum="105"/>ground. </s>

<s>THREE INCLINED SHAFTS, OF WHICH A DOES NOT YET REACH THE TUNNEL; B REACHES THE <lb/>TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.<pb pagenum="105"/>ground. </s>

<s>This kind of an opening, however, differs from a tunnel in that it <lb/>is dark throughout its length. </s>

<s>whereas a tunnel has a mouth open to daylight.</s><figure id="id.002.01.141.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/141/1.jpg"/>

<s>whereas a tunnel has a mouth open to daylight.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—SHAFT. B, C—DRIFT. D—ANOTHER SHAFT. E—TUNNEL. F—MOUTH OF TUNNEL.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/142.jpg" pagenum="106"/>

<s>A—SHAFT. B, C—DRIFT. D—ANOTHER SHAFT. E—TUNNEL. F—MOUTH OF TUNNEL.</s><pb pagenum="106"/>

<s>I have spoken of shafts, tunnels, and drifts. </s>

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<s>The common miners look favourably upon the stringers which come <lb/>from the north and join the main vein; on the other hand, they look <lb/>unfavourably upon those which come from the south, and say that these do <lb/>much harm to the main vein, while the former improve it. </s>

<s>But I think <lb/>that miners should not neglect either of them: as I showed in Book III, <lb/>experience does not confirm those who hold this opinion about veins, so now <pb xlink:href="002/01/143.jpg" pagenum="107"/>again I could furnish examples of each kind of stringers rejected by the <lb/>common miners which have proved good, but I know this could be of little <lb/>or no benefit to posterity.</s>

<s>But I think <lb/>that miners should not neglect either of them: as I showed in Book III, <lb/>experience does not confirm those who hold this opinion about veins, so now <pb pagenum="107"/>again I could furnish examples of each kind of stringers rejected by the <lb/>common miners which have proved good, but I know this could be of little <lb/>or no benefit to posterity.</s>

<s>If the miners find no stringers or veins in the hangingwall or footwall of <lb/>the main vein, and if they do not find much ore, it is not worth while to <lb/>undertake the labour of sinking another shaft. </s>

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<s>Now we may classify gold ores. </s>

<s>Next after native gold, we come to the <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/144.jpg" pagenum="108"/><emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>, of yellowish green, yellow, purple, black, or outside red and inside <lb/>gold colour. </s>

<s>Next after native gold, we come to the <lb/><pb pagenum="108"/><emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>, of yellowish green, yellow, purple, black, or outside red and inside <lb/>gold colour. </s>

<s>These must be reckoned as the richest ores, because the gold <lb/>exceeds the stone or earth in weight. </s>

<s>Next come all gold ores of which each. <lb/></s>

<s>one hundred <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> contains more than three <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>; for although but <lb/>a small proportion of gold is found in the earth or stone, yet it equals in value <lb/>other metals of greater weight.<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> All other gold ores are considered poor, because <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/145.jpg" pagenum="109"/>the earth or stone too far outweighs the gold. </s>

<s>one hundred <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> contains more than three <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>; for although but <lb/>a small proportion of gold is found in the earth or stone, yet it equals in value <lb/>other metals of greater weight.<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> All other gold ores are considered poor, because <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="109"/>the earth or stone too far outweighs the gold. </s>

<s>A vein which contains a <lb/>larger proportion of silver than of gold is rarely found to be a rich one. <lb/></s>

<s>Earth, whether it be dry or wet, rarely abounds in gold; but in dry earth <lb/>there is more often found a greater quantity of gold, especially if it has the <pb xlink:href="002/01/146.jpg" pagenum="110"/>appearance of having been melted in a furnace, and if it is not lacking in <lb/>scales resembling mica. </s>

<s>Earth, whether it be dry or wet, rarely abounds in gold; but in dry earth <lb/>there is more often found a greater quantity of gold, especially if it has the <pb pagenum="110"/>appearance of having been melted in a furnace, and if it is not lacking in <lb/>scales resembling mica. </s>

<s>The solidified juices, azure, chrysocolla, orpiment, <lb/>and realgar, also frequently contain gold. </s>

<s>Likewise native or <emph type="italics"/>rudís<emph.end type="italics"/> gold is <lb/>found sometimes in large, and sometimes in small quantities in quartz, <pb xlink:href="002/01/147.jpg" pagenum="111"/>schist, marble, and also in stone which easily melts in fire of the second <lb/>degree, and which is sometimes so porous that it seems completely decom<lb/>posed. </s>

<s>Likewise native or <emph type="italics"/>rudís<emph.end type="italics"/> gold is <lb/>found sometimes in large, and sometimes in small quantities in quartz, <pb pagenum="111"/>schist, marble, and also in stone which easily melts in fire of the second <lb/>degree, and which is sometimes so porous that it seems completely decom<lb/>posed. </s>

<s>Lastly, gold is found in pyrites, though rarely in large quantities.</s>

<s>When considering silver ores other than native silver, those ores are <pb xlink:href="002/01/148.jpg" pagenum="112"/>classified as rich, of which each one hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> contains more than three <lb/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s>

<s>When considering silver ores other than native silver, those ores are <pb pagenum="112"/>classified as rich, of which each one hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> contains more than three <lb/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s>

<s>This quality comprises <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> silver, whether silver glance or <lb/>ruby silver, or whether white, or black, or grey, or purple, or yellow, or liver-<pb xlink:href="002/01/149.jpg" pagenum="113"/>coloured, or any other. </s>

<s>Sometimes quartz, schist, or marble is of this quality <lb/>also, if much native or <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> silver adheres to it. </s>

<s>But that ore is considered <lb/>of poor quality if three <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver at the utmost are found in each <lb/>one hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of it.<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> Silver ore usually contains a greater quantity <pb xlink:href="002/01/150.jpg" pagenum="114"/>than this, because Nature bestows quantity in place of quality; such ore <lb/>is mixed with all kinds of earth and stone compounds, except the various <lb/>kinds of <emph type="italics"/>rudís<emph.end type="italics"/> silver; especially with pyrites, <emph type="italics"/>cadmia metallíca fossílís,<emph.end type="italics"/> galena, <lb/><emph type="italics"/>stibíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> and others.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/151.jpg" pagenum="115"/>

<s>But that ore is considered <lb/>of poor quality if three <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver at the utmost are found in each <lb/>one hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of it.<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> Silver ore usually contains a greater quantity <pb pagenum="114"/>than this, because Nature bestows quantity in place of quality; such ore <lb/>is mixed with all kinds of earth and stone compounds, except the various <lb/>kinds of <emph type="italics"/>rudís<emph.end type="italics"/> silver; especially with pyrites, <emph type="italics"/>cadmia metallíca fossílís,<emph.end type="italics"/> galena, <lb/><emph type="italics"/>stibíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> and others.</s><pb pagenum="115"/>

<s>As regards other kinds of metal, although some rich ores are found, <lb/>still, unless the veins contain a large quantity of ore, it is very rarely worth <lb/>while to dig them. </s>

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<s>When they <lb/>outcrop, we follow veins of marble by mining in the same way as is <lb/>done with rock or building-stones when we come upon them. </s>

<s>But <lb/>gems, properly so called, though they sometimes have veins of their own, <lb/>are still for the most part found in mines and rock quarries, as the <lb/>lodestone in iron mines, the emery in silver mines, the <emph type="italics"/>lapís judaícus, <lb/>trochítes,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the like in stone quarries where the diggers, at the bidding <lb/>of the owners, usually collect them from the seams in the rocks.<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> Nor does the <lb/>miner neglect the digging of “extraordinary earths,”<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> whether they are found <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/152.jpg" pagenum="116"/>in gold mines, silver mines, or other mines; nor do other miners neglect them <lb/>if they are found in stone quarries, or in their own veins; their value is usually <lb/>indicated by their taste. </s>

<s>But <lb/>gems, properly so called, though they sometimes have veins of their own, <lb/>are still for the most part found in mines and rock quarries, as the <lb/>lodestone in iron mines, the emery in silver mines, the <emph type="italics"/>lapís judaícus, <lb/>trochítes,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the like in stone quarries where the diggers, at the bidding <lb/>of the owners, usually collect them from the seams in the rocks.<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> Nor does the <lb/>miner neglect the digging of “extraordinary earths,”<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> whether they are found <lb/><pb pagenum="116"/>in gold mines, silver mines, or other mines; nor do other miners neglect them <lb/>if they are found in stone quarries, or in their own veins; their value is usually <lb/>indicated by their taste. </s>

<s>Nor, lastly, does the miner fail to give attention to <lb/>the solidified juices which are found in metallic veins, as well as in their own <lb/>veins, from which he collects and gathers them. </s>

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<s>Veins which at the hangingwall and <lb/>footwall have horn-coloured quartz or marble, but in the middle clayey <lb/>earth, give some hope; likewise those give hope in which the hangingwall <lb/>or footwall shows iron-rust coloured earth, and in the middle greasy and <lb/>sticky earth; also there is hope for those which have at the hanging or footwall <lb/>that kind of earth which we call “soldiers' earth,” and in the middle black <lb/>earth or earth which looks as if burnt. </s>

<s>The special indication of gold is <lb/>orpiment; of silver is bismuth and <emph type="italics"/>stibium;<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper is verdigris, <emph type="italics"/>melantería, <lb/>sory, chalcitis, misy,<emph.end type="italics"/> and vitriol; of tin is the large pure black stones of <pb xlink:href="002/01/153.jpg" pagenum="117"/>which the tin itself is made, and a material they dig up resembling litharge; <lb/>of iron, iron rust. </s>

<s>The special indication of gold is <lb/>orpiment; of silver is bismuth and <emph type="italics"/>stibium;<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper is verdigris, <emph type="italics"/>melantería, <lb/>sory, chalcitis, misy,<emph.end type="italics"/> and vitriol; of tin is the large pure black stones of <pb pagenum="117"/>which the tin itself is made, and a material they dig up resembling litharge; <lb/>of iron, iron rust. </s>

<s>Gold and copper are equally indicated by chrysocolla and <lb/>azure; silver and lead, by the lead. </s>

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<s>When the metal <lb/>has not yet shown itself, they do not discriminate between the hangingwall <lb/>and the veins; when it has once been found, they work with the utmost care. <lb/></s>

<s>For first of all they tear away the hangingwall rock separately from the vein, <lb/>afterward with a pick they dislodge the crumbling vein from the footwall <pb xlink:href="002/01/154.jpg" pagenum="118"/>into a dish placed underneath to prevent any of the metal from falling to <lb/>the ground. </s>

<s>For first of all they tear away the hangingwall rock separately from the vein, <lb/>afterward with a pick they dislodge the crumbling vein from the footwall <pb pagenum="118"/>into a dish placed underneath to prevent any of the metal from falling to <lb/>the ground. </s>

<s>They break a hard vein loose from the footwall by blows with <lb/>a hammer upon the first kind of iron tool<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>, all of which are designated by <lb/>appropriate names, and with the same tools they hew away the hard hanging<lb/>wall rock. </s>

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<s>As I have just said, fire shatters the hardest rocks, but the method of its <lb/>application is not simple<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>For if a vein held in the rocks cannot be hewn <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/155.jpg" pagenum="119"/>out because of the hardness or other difficulty, and the drift or tunnel is <lb/>low, a heap of dried logs is placed against the rock and fired; if the drift or <lb/>tunnel is high, two heaps are necessary, of which one is placed above the <lb/>other, and both burn until the fire has consumed them. </s>

<s>For if a vein held in the rocks cannot be hewn <lb/><pb pagenum="119"/>out because of the hardness or other difficulty, and the drift or tunnel is <lb/>low, a heap of dried logs is placed against the rock and fired; if the drift or <lb/>tunnel is high, two heaps are necessary, of which one is placed above the <lb/>other, and both burn until the fire has consumed them. </s>

<s>This force does not <lb/>generally soften a large portion of the vein, but only some of the surface. <lb/></s>

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<s>Further, if the <lb/>excavation is low, only one pile of logs is placed in it, if high, there are <lb/>two, one placed above the other, by which plan the lower bundle being <lb/>kindled sets alight the upper one; and the fire being driven by the draught <lb/>into the vein, separates it from the rock which, however hard it may be, often <lb/>becomes so softened as to be the most easily breakable of all. </s>

<s>Applying this <lb/>principle, Hannibal, the Carthaginian General, imitating the Spanish miners, <pb xlink:href="002/01/156.jpg" pagenum="120"/>overcame the hardness of the Alps by the use of vinegar and fire. </s>

<s>Applying this <lb/>principle, Hannibal, the Carthaginian General, imitating the Spanish miners, <pb pagenum="120"/>overcame the hardness of the Alps by the use of vinegar and fire. </s>

<s>Even <lb/>if a vein is a very wide one, as tin veins usually are, miners excavate into the <lb/>small streaks, and into those hollows they put dry wood and place amongst <lb/>them at frequent intervals sticks, all sides of which are shaved down fan<lb/>shaped, which easily take light, and when once they have taken fire com<lb/>municate it to the other bundles of wood, which easily ignite.</s><figure id="id.002.01.156.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/156/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—KINDLED LOGS. B—STICKS SHAVED DOWN FAN-SHAPED. C—TUNNEL.</s>

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<s>The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> in order to prevent workmen from being <lb/>suffocated, gives no one permission to break veins or rock by fire in shafts or <lb/>tunnels where it is possible for the poisonous vapour and smoke to permeate <lb/>the veins or stringers and pass through into the neighbouring mines, which <lb/>have no hard veins or rock. </s>

<s>As for that part of a vein or the surface of the <lb/>rock which the fire has separated from the remaining mass, if it is overhead, <lb/>the miners dislodge it with a crowbar, or if it still has some degree of hardness, <lb/>they thrust a smaller crowbar into the cracks and so break it down, but if <pb xlink:href="002/01/157.jpg" pagenum="121"/>it is on the sides they break it with hammers. </s>

<s>As for that part of a vein or the surface of the <lb/>rock which the fire has separated from the remaining mass, if it is overhead, <lb/>the miners dislodge it with a crowbar, or if it still has some degree of hardness, <lb/>they thrust a smaller crowbar into the cracks and so break it down, but if <pb pagenum="121"/>it is on the sides they break it with hammers. </s>

<s>Thus broken off, the rock <lb/>tumbles down; or if it still remains, they break it off with picks. </s>

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<s>The outer air flows spontaneously into <lb/>the caverns of the earth, and when it can pass through them comes out again. <lb/></s>

<s>This, however, comes about in different ways, for in spring and summer it <lb/>flows into the deeper shafts, traverses the tunnels or drifts, and finds its way <pb xlink:href="002/01/158.jpg" pagenum="122"/>out of the shallower shafts; similarly at the same season it pours into the <lb/>lowest tunnel and, meeting a shaft in its course, turns aside to a higher tunnel <lb/>and passes out therefrom; but in autumn and winter, on the other hand, it <lb/>enters the upper tunnel or shaft and comes out at the deeper ones. </s>

<s>This, however, comes about in different ways, for in spring and summer it <lb/>flows into the deeper shafts, traverses the tunnels or drifts, and finds its way <pb pagenum="122"/>out of the shallower shafts; similarly at the same season it pours into the <lb/>lowest tunnel and, meeting a shaft in its course, turns aside to a higher tunnel <lb/>and passes out therefrom; but in autumn and winter, on the other hand, it <lb/>enters the upper tunnel or shaft and comes out at the deeper ones. </s>

<s>This <lb/>change in the flow of air currents occurs in temperate regions at the beginning <lb/>of spring and the end of autumn, but in cold regions at the end of spring <lb/>and the beginning of autumn. </s>

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<s>The lagging <lb/>on the sides of the shaft confine the vein, so as to prevent fragments of it <lb/>which have become loosened by water from dropping into the shaft and <lb/>terrifying, or injuring, or knocking off the miners and other workmen who <lb/>are going up or down the ladders from one part of the mine to another. </s>

<s>For <lb/>the same reason, the lagging between the ladders and the haulage-way on <lb/>the other hand, confine and shut off from the ladders the fragments of rock <lb/>which fall from the buckets or baskets while they are being drawn up; <lb/>moreover, they make the arduous and difficult descent and ascent to appear <lb/>less terrible, and in fact to be less dangerous.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/159.jpg" pagenum="123"/>

<s>If a vein is soft and the rock of the hanging and footwalls is weak, <lb/>a closer structure is necessary; for this purpose timbers are joined together <lb/>in rectangular shapes and placed one after the other without a break. </s>

<s>These </s><figure id="id.002.01.159.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/159/1.jpg"/>

<s>These </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—WALL PLATES. B—DIVIDERS. C—LONG END POSTS. D—END PLATES.<pb xlink:href="002/01/160.jpg" pagenum="124"/>are arranged on two different systems; for either the square ends of the <lb/>timbers, which reach from the hangingwall to the footwall, are fixed into corres<lb/>ponding square holes in the timbers which lie along the hanging or footwall, <lb/>or the upper part of the end of one and the lower part of the end of the other <lb/>are cut out and one laid on the other. </s>

<s>A—WALL PLATES. B—DIVIDERS. C—LONG END POSTS. D—END PLATES.<pb pagenum="124"/>are arranged on two different systems; for either the square ends of the <lb/>timbers, which reach from the hangingwall to the footwall, are fixed into corres<lb/>ponding square holes in the timbers which lie along the hanging or footwall, <lb/>or the upper part of the end of one and the lower part of the end of the other <lb/>are cut out and one laid on the other. </s>

<s>The great weight of these joined <lb/>timbers is sustained by stout beams placed at intervals, which are deeply set <lb/>into hitches in the footwall and hangingwall, but are inclined. </s>

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<s>If the vein is solid and <lb/>hard, and likewise the hanging and footwall rock, no part of the tunnel <lb/>needs support, beyond that which is required at the mouth, because at that <lb/>spot there is not yet solid rock; if the vein is soft, and the hanging and <lb/>footwall rock are likewise soft, the tunnel requires frequent strong timbering, <lb/>which is provided in the following way. </s>

<s>First, two dressed posts are erected <lb/>and set into the tunnel floor, which is dug out a little; these are of medium <pb xlink:href="002/01/161.jpg" pagenum="125"/>thickness, and high enough that their ends, which are cut square, almost <lb/>touch the top of the tunnel; then upon them is placed a smaller dressed cap, <lb/>which is mortised into the heads of the posts: at the bottom, other small <lb/>timbers, whose ends are similarly squared, are mortised into the posts. </s>

<s>First, two dressed posts are erected <lb/>and set into the tunnel floor, which is dug out a little; these are of medium <pb pagenum="125"/>thickness, and high enough that their ends, which are cut square, almost <lb/>touch the top of the tunnel; then upon them is placed a smaller dressed cap, <lb/>which is mortised into the heads of the posts: at the bottom, other small <lb/>timbers, whose ends are similarly squared, are mortised into the posts. </s>

<s>At <lb/>each interval of one and a half fathoms, one of these sets is erected; each one <lb/>of these the miners call a “little doorway,” because it opens a certain amount <lb/>of passage way; and indeed, when necessity requires it, doors are fixed to the <lb/>timbers of each little doorway so that it can be closed. </s>

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<s>Lastly, <lb/>if rock or earth are carried out in wheelbarrows, planks joined together are <lb/>laid upon the sills; if the rock is hauled out in trucks, then two timbers <lb/>three-quarters of a foot thick and wide are laid on the sills, and, where they <lb/>join, these are usually hollowed out so that in the hollow, as in a road, the iron <lb/>pin of the truck may be pushed along; indeed, because of this pin in the <lb/>groove, the truck does not leave the worn track to the left or right. </s>

<s>Beneath <lb/>the sills are the drains through which the water flows away.</s><figure id="id.002.01.161.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/161/1.jpg"/>

<s>Beneath <lb/>the sills are the drains through which the water flows away.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—POSTS. B—CAPS. C—SILLS. D—DOORS. E—LAGGING. F—DRAINS.</s>

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<s>These do not, however, <lb/>require sill-pieces, or drains; for the broken rock is not hauled very far, nor does <lb/>the water have far to flow. </s>

<s>If the vein above is metal-bearing, as it sometimes is <pb xlink:href="002/01/162.jpg" pagenum="126"/>for a distance of several fathoms, then from the upper part of tunnels or even <lb/>drifts that have already been driven, other drifts are driven again <lb/>and again until that part of the vein is reached which does not yield metal. <lb/></s>

<s>If the vein above is metal-bearing, as it sometimes is <pb pagenum="126"/>for a distance of several fathoms, then from the upper part of tunnels or even <lb/>drifts that have already been driven, other drifts are driven again <lb/>and again until that part of the vein is reached which does not yield metal. <lb/></s>

<s>The timbering of these openings is done as follows: stulls are set at <lb/>intervals into hitches in the hanging and footwall, and upon them <lb/>smooth poles are laid continuously; and that they may be able to <lb/>bear the weight, the stulls are generally a foot and a half thick. </s>

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<s>Joined to the last, and underneath, comes a <lb/>stratum, the fourth in number, dark in colour and a foot thick. </s>

<s>Under this <lb/>comes the fifth stratum, of a pale or yellowish colour, two feet thick; under-<pb xlink:href="002/01/163.jpg" pagenum="127"/>neath which is the sixth stratum, likewise dark, but rough and three feet <lb/>thick. </s>

<s>Under this <lb/>comes the fifth stratum, of a pale or yellowish colour, two feet thick; under-<pb pagenum="127"/>neath which is the sixth stratum, likewise dark, but rough and three feet <lb/>thick. </s>

<s>Afterward occurs the seventh stratum, likewise of dark colour, but <lb/>still darker than the last, and two feet thick. </s>

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<s>The miners mine out a <emph type="italics"/>vena dílatata<emph.end type="italics"/> laterally and longitudinally by <lb/>driving a low tunnel in it, and if the nature of the work and place permit, they <lb/>sink also a shaft in order to discover whether there is a second vein beneath <lb/>the first one; for sometimes beneath it there are two, three, or more similar <lb/>metal-bearing veins, and these are excavated in the same way laterally and <lb/>longitudinally. </s>

<s>They generally mine <emph type="italics"/>venæ dilatatæ<emph.end type="italics"/> lying down; and to <pb xlink:href="002/01/164.jpg" pagenum="128"/>avoid wearing away their clothes and injuring their left shoulders they <lb/>usually bind on themselves small wooden cradles. </s>

<s>They generally mine <emph type="italics"/>venæ dilatatæ<emph.end type="italics"/> lying down; and to <pb pagenum="128"/>avoid wearing away their clothes and injuring their left shoulders they <lb/>usually bind on themselves small wooden cradles. </s>

<s>For this reason, this <lb/>particular class of miners, in order to use their iron tools, are obliged to bend <lb/>their necks to the left, not infrequently having them twisted. </s>

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<s>I have completed one part of this book, and now come to the other, in <lb/>which I will deal with the art of surveying. </s>

<s>Miners measure the solid <pb xlink:href="002/01/165.jpg" pagenum="129"/>mass of the mountains in order that the owners may lay out their plans, and <lb/>that their workmen may not encroach on other people's possessions. </s>

<s>Miners measure the solid <pb pagenum="129"/>mass of the mountains in order that the owners may lay out their plans, and <lb/>that their workmen may not encroach on other people's possessions. </s>

<s>The <lb/>surveyor either measures the interval not yet wholly dug through, which <lb/>lies between the mouth of a tunnel and a shaft to be sunk to that depth, or <lb/>between the mouth of a shaft and the tunnel to be driven to that spot which <lb/>lies under the shaft, or between both, if the tunnel is neither so long as to <lb/>reach to the shaft, nor the shaft so deep as to reach to the tunnel; and thus <lb/>on both sides work is still to be done. </s>

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<s>A <lb/>small triangle should be laid out, and from it calculations must be made <lb/>regarding a larger one. </s>

<s>Most particular care must be taken that we do not <lb/>deviate at all from a correct measuring; for if, at the beginning, we are drawn <pb xlink:href="002/01/166.jpg" pagenum="130"/>by carelessness into a slight error, this at the end will produce great errors. <lb/></s>

<s>Most particular care must be taken that we do not <lb/>deviate at all from a correct measuring; for if, at the beginning, we are drawn <pb pagenum="130"/>by carelessness into a slight error, this at the end will produce great errors. <lb/></s>

<s>Now these triangles are of many shapes, since shafts differ among themselves <lb/>and are not all sunk by one and the same method into the depths of the <lb/>earth, nor do the slopes of all mountains come down to the valley or plain in <lb/>the same manner. </s>

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<s>Next, from the same pole not far from the first cord, he lets <lb/>down a third cord, similarly weighted, so that it may intersect the second <lb/>cord, which descends obliquely. </s>

<s>Then, starting from that point where the <lb/>third cord cuts the second cord which descends obliquely to the mouth of the <lb/>tunnel, he measures the second cord upward to where it reaches the end of </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/167.jpg" pagenum="131"/><figure id="id.002.01.167.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/167/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—UPRIGHT FORKED POSTS. B—POLE OVER THE POSTS. C—SHAFT. D—FIRST CORD. <lb/>E—WEIGHT OF FIRST CORD. F—SECOND CORD. G—SAME FIXED GROUND. H—HEAD <lb/>OF FIRST CORD. I—MOUTH OF TUNNEL. K—THIRD CORD. L—WEIGHT OF THIRD CORD. <lb/>M—FIRST SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. N—SECOND SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. O—THIRD SIDE <lb/>MINOR TRIANGLE. P—THE MINOR TRIANGLE.<pb xlink:href="002/01/168.jpg" pagenum="132"/>the first cord, and makes a note of this first side of the minor triangle<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/></s>

<s>A—UPRIGHT FORKED POSTS. B—POLE OVER THE POSTS. C—SHAFT. D—FIRST CORD. <lb/>E—WEIGHT OF FIRST CORD. F—SECOND CORD. G—SAME FIXED GROUND. H—HEAD <lb/>OF FIRST CORD. I—MOUTH OF TUNNEL. K—THIRD CORD. L—WEIGHT OF THIRD CORD. <lb/>M—FIRST SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. N—SECOND SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. O—THIRD SIDE <lb/>MINOR TRIANGLE. P—THE MINOR TRIANGLE.<pb pagenum="132"/>the first cord, and makes a note of this first side of the minor triangle<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/></s>

<s>Afterward, starting again from that point where the third cord intersects the <lb/>second cord, he measures the straight space which lies between that point <lb/>and the opposite point on the first cord, and in that way forms the minor <lb/>triangle, and he notes this second side of the minor triangle in the same way as <lb/>before. </s>

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<s>Now if the minor <lb/>triangle has the two sides equal, which, in accordance with the numbering <lb/>used by surveyors, are the second and third sides, then the second and third <lb/>sides of the major triangle will be equal; and so also the intervening <lb/>distances will be equal which lie between the mouth of the tunnel and the <lb/>bottom of the shaft, and which lie between the mouth of the shaft and the <lb/>bottom of the tunnel. </s>

<s>For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is <lb/>seven feet long and the second and likewise the third sides are five feet, and <pb xlink:href="002/01/169.jpg" pagenum="133"/>the length shown by the cord for the side of the major triangle is 101 times <lb/>seven feet, that is 117 fathoms and five feet, then the intervening space, of <lb/>course, whether the whole of it has been already driven through or has yet <lb/>to be driven, will be one hundred times five feet, which makes eighty-three <lb/>fathoms and two feet. </s>

<s>For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is <lb/>seven feet long and the second and likewise the third sides are five feet, and <pb pagenum="133"/>the length shown by the cord for the side of the major triangle is 101 times <lb/>seven feet, that is 117 fathoms and five feet, then the intervening space, of <lb/>course, whether the whole of it has been already driven through or has yet <lb/>to be driven, will be one hundred times five feet, which makes eighty-three <lb/>fathoms and two feet. </s>

<s>Anyone with this example of proportions will be <lb/>able to construct the major and minor triangles in the same way as I have <lb/>done, if there be the necessary upright posts and cross-beams. </s>

<s>When a shaft is <lb/>vertical the triangle is absolutely upright; when it is inclined and is sunk on <lb/>the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, it is inclined toward one side. </s><figure id="id.002.01.169.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/169/1.jpg"/>

<s>A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.<lb/>Therefore, if a tunnel has been driven into the mountain for sixty fathoms, <lb/>there remains a space of ground to be penetrated twenty-three fathoms and <lb/>two feet long; for five feet of the second side of the major triangle, which <lb/>lies above the mouth of the shaft and corresponds with the first side of the <lb/>minor triangle, must not be added. </s>

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<s>Similarly, if the shaft is seventy fathoms deep, in order that it may reach to <lb/>the bottom of the tunnel, it still must be sunk a further depth of thirteen <lb/>fathoms and two feet, or rather twelve fathoms and a half, one foot, two <lb/>digits, and four-fifths of half a digit. </s>

<s>And in this instance five feet must be <lb/>deducted from the reckoning, because these five feet complete the third side <lb/>of the minor triangle, which is above the mouth of the shaft, and from its <pb xlink:href="002/01/170.jpg" pagenum="134"/>depth there must be deducted half a fathom, two palms, one and a half digits <lb/>and the fifth part of half a digit. </s>

<s>And in this instance five feet must be <lb/>deducted from the reckoning, because these five feet complete the third side <lb/>of the minor triangle, which is above the mouth of the shaft, and from its <pb pagenum="134"/>depth there must be deducted half a fathom, two palms, one and a half digits <lb/>and the fifth part of half a digit. </s>

<s>But if the tunnel has been driven to a <lb/>point where it is under the shaft, then to reach the roof of the tunnel the <lb/>shaft must still be sunk a depth of eleven fathoms, two and a half feet, one <lb/>palm, two digits, and four-fifths of half a digit.</s>

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<s>And so, if the tunnel is eighty-five fathoms long, the remainder to be driven <lb/>into the mountain is fifteen fathoms long, and here, too, a correction in <lb/>measurement must be taken from the depth of the shaft and added to the <lb/>length of the tunnel; what this is precisely, I will pursue no further, since <lb/>everyone having a small knowledge of arithmetic can work it out. </s>

<s>If the <lb/>shaft is sixty-seven fathoms deep, in order that it may reach the bottom of <lb/>the tunnel, the further distance required to be sunk amounts to sixteen <lb/>fathoms and two feet.</s><figure id="id.002.01.170.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/170/1.jpg"/>

<s>A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.</s>

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<s>Then <lb/>the first side of the major triangle will be one hundred and one times nine <lb/>feet, or one hundred and fifty-one and one-half fathoms, and each of the <lb/>other sides of the major triangle will be one hundred times five feet, that is, <lb/>eighty-three fathoms and two feet. </s>

<s>But when the first shaft is inclined, <pb xlink:href="002/01/171.jpg" pagenum="135"/>generally speaking, it is not deep; but there are usually several, all <lb/>inclined, and one always following the other. </s>

<s>But when the first shaft is inclined, <pb pagenum="135"/>generally speaking, it is not deep; but there are usually several, all <lb/>inclined, and one always following the other. </s>

<s>Therefore, if a tunnel is seventy<lb/>seven fathoms long, it will reach to the middle of the bottom of a shaft when <lb/>six fathoms and two feet further have been sunk. </s>

<s>But if all such inclined <lb/>shafts are seventy-six fathoms deep, in order that the last one may reach <lb/>the bottom of the tunnel, a depth of seven fathoms and two feet remains to <lb/>be sunk.</s><figure id="id.002.01.171.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/171/1.jpg"/>

<s>TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.</s>

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<s>Therefore, if a tunnel is forty-four fathoms long, the remaining distance to <lb/>be driven is six fathoms. </s>

<s>If the shafts are fifty-eight fathoms deep, the <lb/>newest will touch the bottom of the tunnel when eight fathoms and four <lb/>feet have been sunk.</s><figure id="id.002.01.171.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/171/2.jpg"/>

<s>If the shafts are fifty-eight fathoms deep, the <lb/>newest will touch the bottom of the tunnel when eight fathoms and four <lb/>feet have been sunk.</s><figure></figure>

<s>TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.</s>

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<s>And thus if the <lb/>tunnel is ninety fathoms long, it will reach the middle of the bottom of the <lb/>last shaft when ten fathoms further have been driven. </s>

<s>If the shafts are <pb xlink:href="002/01/172.jpg" pagenum="136"/>ninety-five fathoms deep, the last will reach the bottom of the tunnel when <lb/>it is sunk a further depth of five fathoms.</s><figure id="id.002.01.172.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/172/1.jpg"/>

<s>If the shafts are <pb pagenum="136"/>ninety-five fathoms deep, the last will reach the bottom of the tunnel when <lb/>it is sunk a further depth of five fathoms.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES EQUAL.</s>

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<s>So if the tunnel is sixty fathoms long, the remaining distance to be driven <lb/>into the mountain is six fathoms and four feet. </s>

<s>If the shaft is ninety-seven <lb/>fathoms deep, the last one will reach the bottom of the tunnel when a further <lb/>depth of three fathoms has been sunk.</s><figure id="id.002.01.172.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/172/2.jpg"/>

<s>If the shaft is ninety-seven <lb/>fathoms deep, the last one will reach the bottom of the tunnel when a further <lb/>depth of three fathoms has been sunk.</s><figure></figure>

<s>TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND TWO SIDES EQUAL, A, B, UNEQUAL SIDE C.</s>

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<s>Therefore, if a tunnel is fifty fathoms long, it will reach the middle of the <lb/>bottom of the newest shaft when it has been driven sixteen fathoms and four <lb/>feet further. </s>

<s>But if the shafts are then ninety-two fathoms deep, the last <pb xlink:href="002/01/173.jpg" pagenum="137"/>shaft will reach the bottom of the tunnel when it has been sunk a further <lb/>eight fathoms.</s><figure id="id.002.01.173.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/173/1.jpg"/>

<s>But if the shafts are then ninety-two fathoms deep, the last <pb pagenum="137"/>shaft will reach the bottom of the tunnel when it has been sunk a further <lb/>eight fathoms.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES UNEQUAL.</s>

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<s>This consists of half a circle, the outer margin of which is <lb/>covered with wax, and within this are six semi-circular lines. </s>

<s>From the <pb xlink:href="002/01/174.jpg" pagenum="138"/>waxed margin through the first semi-circular line, and reaching to the second, <lb/>there proceed straight lines converging toward the centre of the hemicycle; <lb/>these mark the middles of intervening spaces lying between other straight lines <lb/>which extend to the fourth semi-circular line. </s>

<s>From the <pb pagenum="138"/>waxed margin through the first semi-circular line, and reaching to the second, <lb/>there proceed straight lines converging toward the centre of the hemicycle; <lb/>these mark the middles of intervening spaces lying between other straight lines <lb/>which extend to the fourth semi-circular line. </s>

<s>But all lines whatsoever, from <lb/>the waxed margin up to the fourth line, whether they go beyond it or not, <lb/>correspond with the graduated lines which mark the minor spaces of a rod. <lb/></s>

<s>Those which go beyond the fourth line correspond with the lines marking </s><figure id="id.002.01.174.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/174/1.jpg"/>

<s>Those which go beyond the fourth line correspond with the lines marking </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—WAXED SEMICIRCLE OF THE HEMICYCLE. B—SEMICIRCULAR LINES. C—STRAIGHT <lb/>LINES. D—LINE MEASURING THE HALF. E—LINE MEASURING THE WHOLE. F—TONGUE.<pb xlink:href="002/01/175.jpg" pagenum="139"/>the major spaces on the rod, and those which proceed further, mark the <lb/>middle of the intervening space which lies between the others. </s>

<s>A—WAXED SEMICIRCLE OF THE HEMICYCLE. B—SEMICIRCULAR LINES. C—STRAIGHT <lb/>LINES. D—LINE MEASURING THE HALF. E—LINE MEASURING THE WHOLE. F—TONGUE.<pb pagenum="139"/>the major spaces on the rod, and those which proceed further, mark the <lb/>middle of the intervening space which lies between the others. </s>

<s>The <lb/>straight lines, which run from the fifth to the sixth semi-circular line, show <lb/>nothing further. </s>

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<s>When the hemicycle is applied to the cord, if its tongue indicates <lb/>the sixth straight line which lies between the second and third semi-circular <lb/>lines, the surveyor counts on the rod six lines which separate the minor <lb/>spaces, and if the length of this portion of the rod be taken from the second <lb/>cord, as many times as the cord itself is half-fathoms long, the remaining <lb/>length of cord shows the distance the tunnel must be driven to reach under <lb/>the shaft. </s>

<s>But if he sees that the tongue has gone so far that it marks the <lb/>sixth line between the fourth and fifth semi-circular lines, he counts six lines <lb/>which separate the major spaces on the rod; and this entire space is deducted <lb/>from the length of the second cord, as many times as the number of whole <lb/>fathoms which the cord contains; and then, in like manner, the remaining <lb/>length of cord shows us the distance the tunnel must be driven to reach <lb/>under the shaft.<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/></s><figure id="id.002.01.175.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/175/1.jpg"/>

<s>STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST CORD. B—SECOND CORD. C—THIRD CORD. <lb/>D—TRIANGLE.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/176.jpg" pagenum="140"/>

<s>STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST CORD. B—SECOND CORD. C—THIRD CORD. <lb/>D—TRIANGLE.</s><pb pagenum="140"/>

<s>Both these surveyors, as well as the others, in the first place make use <lb/>of the haulage rope. </s>

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<s>This third cord is measured by the instrument <lb/>with the index, to determine its relation to the perpendicular; and the length <lb/>of this cord shows the depth of the shaft.</s>

<s>Some surveyors, to make their system of measuring the depth of a shaft <lb/>more certain, use five stretched cords: the first one descending obliquely; <lb/>two, that is to say the second and third, for ascertaining the length of the <lb/>tunnel; two for the depth of the shaft; in which way they form a quadrangle <lb/>divided into two equal triangles, and this tends to greater accuracy.</s><figure id="id.002.01.176.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/176/1.jpg"/>

<s>STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST. B—SECOND. B—THIRD. C—FOURTH. C—FIFTH. <lb/>D—QUADRANGLE.</s>

<s>These systems of measuring the depth of a shaft and the length of a <lb/>tunnel, are accurate when the vein and also the shaft or shafts go down to the <pb xlink:href="002/01/177.jpg" pagenum="141"/>tunnel vertically or inclined, in an uninterrupted case. </s>

<s>These systems of measuring the depth of a shaft and the length of a <lb/>tunnel, are accurate when the vein and also the shaft or shafts go down to the <pb pagenum="141"/>tunnel vertically or inclined, in an uninterrupted c<gap/>se. </s>

<s>The same is true <lb/>when a tunnel runs straight on to a shaft. </s>

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<s>In the case of the compass, since <lb/>it has no opening, he merely places it by the side of the screw. </s>

<s>That the <lb/>instrument does not incline forward or backward, and in that way the <pb xlink:href="002/01/178.jpg" pagenum="142"/>measurement become a greater length than it should be, he sets upon the <lb/>instrument a standing plummet level, the tongue of which, if the instrument <lb/>is level, indicates no numbers, but the point from which the numbers start.</s><figure id="id.002.01.178.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/178/1.jpg"/>

<s>That the <lb/>instrument does not incline forward or backward, and in that way the <pb pagenum="142"/>measurement become a greater length than it should be, he sets upon the <lb/>instrument a standing plummet level, the tongue of which, if the instrument <lb/>is level, indicates no numbers, but the point from which the numbers start.</s><figure></figure>

<s>COMPASS. A, B, C, D, E, F, G ARE THE SEVEN WAXED CIRCLES.</s>

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<s>First of <lb/>all, to each angle, according as the calculation of his triangle and his art <lb/>require it, he lays out a straight cord as a line. </s>

<s>Then he stretches a cord at </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/179.jpg" /><figure id="id.002.01.179.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/179/1.jpg"/>

<s>Then he stretches a cord at </s><pb/><figure></figure>

<s>A, B, C, D, E—FIVE WAXED CIRCLES OF THE <emph type="italics"/>orbis.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>F—OPENING OF SAME. G—SCREW. H—PERFORATED IRON.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/180.jpg" /><figure id="id.002.01.180.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/180/1.jpg"/>

<s>A, B, C, D, E—FIVE WAXED CIRCLES OF THE <emph type="italics"/>orbis.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>F—OPENING OF SAME. G—SCREW. H—PERFORATED IRON.</s><pb/><figure></figure>

<s>A—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MINOR SPACES. B—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MAJOR SPACES.<pb xlink:href="002/01/181.jpg" pagenum="143"/>such an angle as represents the slope of the mountain, so that its lower end <lb/>may reach the end of the straight cord; then he stretches a third cord </s><figure id="id.002.01.181.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/181/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MINOR SPACES. B—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MAJOR SPACES.<pb pagenum="143"/>such an angle as represents the slope of the mountain, so that its lower end <lb/>may reach the end of the straight cord; then he stretches a third cord </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—STANDING PLUMMET LEVEL. B—TONGUE. C—LEVEL AND TONGUE.<pb xlink:href="002/01/182.jpg" pagenum="144"/>similarly straight and at such an angle, that with its upper end it may reach <lb/>the upper end of the second cord, and with its lower end the last end of the <lb/>first cord. </s>

<s>A—STANDING PLUMMET LEVEL. B—TONGUE. C—LEVEL AND TONGUE.<pb pagenum="144"/>similarly straight and at such an angle, that with its upper end it may reach <lb/>the upper end of the second cord, and with its lower end the last end of the <lb/>first cord. </s>

<s>The length of the third cord shows the depth of the shaft, as I <lb/>said before, and at the same time that point on the tunnel to which the shaft <lb/>will reach when it has been sunk.</s>

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<s>Then in a like manner <lb/>he measures the upper drift and the incline shaft which is sunk therein <lb/>toward which a raise is being dug, then again all the cords are stretched in <lb/>the surveyor's field, the last cord in such a way that it reaches the first, and <lb/>then he measures them. </s>

<s>From this measurement is known in what part <pb xlink:href="002/01/183.jpg" pagenum="145"/>of the drift or tunnel the raise should be made, and how many fathoms of <lb/>vein remain to be broken through in order that the shaft may be connected.</s>

<s>From this measurement is known in what part <pb pagenum="145"/>of the drift or tunnel the raise should be made, and how many fathoms of <lb/>vein remain to be broken through in order that the shaft may be connected.</s>

<s>I have described the first reason for surveying; I will now describe <lb/>another. </s>

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<s>The tongue shows <lb/>whether the cord inclines forward or backward. </s>

<s>The tongue does not hang, <pb xlink:href="002/01/184.jpg" pagenum="146"/>as in the case of the suspended plummet level, but is fixed to the instrument in <lb/>a half-lying position. </s>

<s>The tongue does not hang, <pb pagenum="146"/>as in the case of the suspended plummet level, but is fixed to the instrument in <lb/>a half-lying position. </s>

<s>They measure the tunnels for the purpose of knowing <lb/>how many fathoms they have been increased in elevation; how many fathoms <lb/>the lower is distant from the upper one; how many fathoms of interval is </s><figure id="id.002.01.184.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/184/1.jpg"/>

<s>INDICATOR OF A SUSPENDED PLUMMET LEVEL.<pb xlink:href="002/01/185.jpg" pagenum="147"/>not yet pierced between the miners who on opposite sides are digging on <lb/>the same vein, or cross-stringers, or two veins which are approaching one <lb/>another.</s>

<s>INDICATOR OF A SUSPENDED PLUMMET LEVEL.<pb pagenum="147"/>not yet pierced between the miners who on opposite sides are digging on <lb/>the same vein, or cross-stringers, or two veins which are approaching one <lb/>another.</s>

<s>But I return to our mines. </s>

<s>If the surveyor desires to fix the boundaries <lb/>of the meer within the tunnels or drifts, and mark to them with a sign cut in the <lb/>rock, in the same way that the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> has marked these boundaries <lb/>above ground, he first of all ascertains, by measuring in the manner <lb/>which I have explained above, which part of the tunnel or drift lies <lb/>beneath the surface boundary mark, stretching the cords along the drifts to <lb/>a point beyond that spot in the rock where he judges the mark should be <lb/>cut. </s>

<s>Then, after the same cords have been laid out on the surveyor's field, <lb/>he starts from that upper cord at a point which shows the boundary mark, <lb/>and stretches another cross-cord straight downward according to the sixth </s><figure id="id.002.01.185.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/185/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—NEEDLE OF THE INSTRUMENT. B—ITS TONGUE. C, D, E—HOLES IN THE TONGUE.<pb xlink:href="002/01/186.jpg" pagenum="148"/>division of the compass—that is at a right angle. </s>

<s>A—NEEDLE OF THE INSTRUMENT. B—ITS TONGUE. C, D, E—HOLES IN THE TONGUE.<pb pagenum="148"/>division of the compass—that is at a right angle. </s>

<s>Then that part <lb/>of the lowest cord which lies beyond the part to which the cross-cord <lb/>runs being removed, it shows at what point the boundary mark should <lb/>be cut into the rock of the tunnel or drift. </s>

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<s>The point <lb/>where they touch, he judges to be the place where the underground boundary <lb/>mark should be cut.</s>

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<s>There are certain iron tools which the miners designate by names of their <lb/>own, and besides these, there are wedges, iron blocks, iron plates, hammers, <lb/>crowbars, pikes, picks, hoes, and shovels. </s>

<s>Of those which are especially <lb/>referred to as “iron tools” there are four varieties, which are different <lb/>from one another in length or thickness, but not in shape, for the <lb/>upper end of all of them is broad and square, so that it can be struck by the <pb xlink:href="002/01/188.jpg" pagenum="150"/>hammer. </s>

<s>The lower end is pointed so as to split the hard rocks and veins <lb/>with its point. </s>

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<s>These tools are made larger or smaller as <lb/>necessary. </s>

<s>The smiths, as far as possible, sharpen again all that become dull.</s><figure id="id.002.01.188.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/188/1.jpg"/>

<s>The smiths, as far as possible, sharpen again all that become dull.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—FIRST “IRON TOOL.” B—SECOND. C—THIRD. D—FOURTH.<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> E—WEDGE. F—IRON <lb/>BLOCK. G—IRON PLATE. H—WOODEN HANDLE. I—HANDLE INSERTED IN FIRST TOOL.</s>

<s>A wedge is usually three palms and two digits long and six digits wide; <lb/>at the upper end, for a distance of a palm, it is three digits thick, and <lb/>beyond that point it becomes thinner by degrees, until finally it is quite <lb/>sharp.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/189.jpg" pagenum="151"/>

<s>The iron block is six digits in length and width; at the upper end it is <lb/>two digits thick, and at the bottom a digit and a half. </s>

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<s>All of these, <lb/>as I explained in the last book, are used when the hardest kind of veins are <lb/>hewn out. </s>

<s>Wedges, locks, and plates, are likewise made larger or smaller.</s><figure id="id.002.01.189.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/189/1.jpg"/>

<s>Wedges, locks, and plates, are likewise made larger or smaller.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—SMALLEST OF THE SMALLER HAMMERS. B—INTERMEDIATE. C—LARGEST. D—SMALL <lb/>KIND OF THE LARGER HAMMER. E—LARGE KIND. F—WOODEN HANDLE. G—HANDLE <lb/>FIXED IN THE SMALLEST HAMMER.</s>

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<s>Of the larger sort of hammers <lb/>there are two kinds; with the smaller they strike the fourth “iron tool;” <lb/>with the larger they drive the wedges into the cracks; the former are three, <lb/>and the latter five digits wide and thick, and a foot long. </s>

<s>All swell out in <lb/>their middle, in which there is an eye for a handle, but in most cases the <lb/>handles are somewhat light, in order that the workmen may be able to strike <lb/>more powerful blows by the hammer's full weight being thus concentrated.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/190.jpg" pagenum="152"/>

<s>The iron crowbars are likewise of two kinds, and each kind is pointed at <lb/>one end. </s>

<s>One is rounded, and with this they pierce to a shaft full of water <lb/>when a tunnel reaches to it; the other is flat, and with this they knock out <lb/>of the stopes on to the floor, the rocks which have been softened by the fire, <lb/>and which cannot be dislodged by the pike. </s>

<s>A miner's pike, like a sailor's, <lb/>is a long rod having an iron head.</s><figure id="id.002.01.190.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/190/1.jpg"/>

<s>A miner's pike, like a sailor's, <lb/>is a long rod having an iron head.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—ROUND CROWBAR. B—FLAT CROWBAR. C—PIKE.</s><figure id="id.002.01.190.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/190/2.jpg"/>

<s>A—ROUND CROWBAR. B—FLAT CROWBAR. C—PIKE.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—PICK. B—HOE. C—SHOVEL.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/191.jpg" pagenum="153"/>

<s>A—PICK. B—HOE. C—SHOVEL.</s><pb pagenum="153"/>

<s>The miner's pick differs from a peasant's pick in that the latter is wide <lb/>at the bottom and sharp, but the former is pointed. </s>

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<s>Some, in place <lb/>of these buckets, substitute baskets which hold just as much, or even more, <lb/>since they are lighter than the buckets; some use sacks made of ox-hide <lb/>instead of buckets, and the drawing-rope hook is fastened to their iron bale, <lb/>usually three of these filled with excavated material are drawn up at the <lb/>same time as three are being lowered and three are being filled by boys. </s>

<s>The <lb/>latter are generally used at Schneeberg and the former at Freiberg.<lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/192.jpg" pagenum="154"/><figure id="id.002.01.192.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/192/1.jpg"/></s><figure id="id.002.01.192.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/192/2.jpg"/>

<s>The <lb/>latter are generally used at Schneeberg and the former at Freiberg.<lb/><pb pagenum="154"/><figure id="fig2"></figure></s><figure></figure>

<s>A—SMALL BUCKET. B—LARGE BUCKET. C—STAVES. D—IRON HOOPS. E—IRON <lb/>STRAPS. F—IRON STRAPS ON THE BOTTOM. G—HAFTS. H—IRON BALE. I—HOOK OF <lb/>DRAWING-ROPE. K—BASKET. L—HIDE BUCKET OR SACK.</s>

<s>That which we call a <emph type="italics"/>cisíum<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> is a vehicle with one wheel, not with <lb/>two, such as horses draw. </s>

<s>When filled with excavated material it is pushed <pb xlink:href="002/01/193.jpg" pagenum="155"/>by a workman out of tunnels or sheds. </s>

<s>When filled with excavated material it is pushed <pb pagenum="155"/>by a workman out of tunnels or sheds. </s>

<s>It is made as follows: two planks <lb/>are chosen about five feet long, one foot wide, and two digits thick; of <lb/>each of these the lower side is cut away at the front for a length of one <lb/>foot, and at the back for a length of two feet, while the middle is left whole. <lb/></s>

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<s>Miners also have another wheelbarrow, larger than this <lb/>one, which they use when they wash earth mixed with tin-stone on to which <lb/>a stream has been turned. </s>

<s>The front end-board of this one is deeper, in <lb/>order that the earth which has been thrown into it may not fall out.</s><figure id="id.002.01.193.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/193/1.jpg"/>

<s>The front end-board of this one is deeper, in <lb/>order that the earth which has been thrown into it may not fall out.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—SMALL WHEELBARROW. B—LONG PLANKS THEREOF. C—END-BOARDS. D—SMALL <lb/>WHEEL. E—LARGER BARROW. F—FRONT END-BOARD THEREOF.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/194.jpg" pagenum="156"/><figure id="id.002.01.194.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/194/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—SMALL WHEELBARROW. B—LONG PLANKS THEREOF. C—END-BOARDS. D—SMALL <lb/>WHEEL. E—LARGER BARROW. F—FRONT END-BOARD THEREOF.</s><pb pagenum="156"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—RECTANGULAR IRON BANDS ON TRUCK. B—ITS IRON STRAPS. C—IRON AXLE. <lb/>D—WOODEN ROLLERS. E—SMALL IRON KEYS. F—LARGE BLUNT IRON PIN. <lb/>G—SAME TRUCK UPSIDE DOWN.</s>

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<s>Bateas<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> are hollowed out of a single block of wood; the smaller kind <lb/>are generally two feet long and one foot wide. </s>

<s>When they have been <lb/>filled with ore, especially when but little is dug from the shafts and tunnels, <lb/>men either carry them out on their shoulders, or bear them away hung from <lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/195.jpg" pagenum="157"/><figure id="id.002.01.195.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/195/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—SMALL BATEA. B—ROPE. C—LARGE BATEA.<lb/>their necks. </s>

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<s>The water is poured <lb/>into these buckets by dippers, which are small wooden buckets, but unlike the <lb/>water-buckets, they are neither narrow at the top nor bound with iron hoops, <lb/>but with hazel,—because there is no necessity for either. </s>

<s>The smaller buckets <lb/>are drawn up by machines turned by men, the larger ones by those turned by <lb/>horses.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/196.jpg" pagenum="158"/><figure id="id.002.01.196.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/196/1.jpg"/>

<s>The smaller buckets <lb/>are drawn up by machines turned by men, the larger ones by those turned by <lb/>horses.</s><pb pagenum="158"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—SMALLER WATER-BUCKET. B—LARGER WATER-BUCKET. C—DIPPER</s><figure id="id.002.01.196.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/196/2.jpg"/>

<s>A—SMALLER WATER-BUCKET. B—LARGER WATER-BUCKET. C—DIPPER</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—WATER-BAG WHICH TAKES IN WATER BY ITSELF. B—WATER-BAG INTO WHICH WATER <lb/>POURS WHEN IT IS PUSHED WITH A SHOVEL.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/197.jpg" pagenum="159"/>

<s>A—WATER-BAG WHICH TAKES IN WATER BY ITSELF. B—WATER-BAG INTO WHICH WATER <lb/>POURS WHEN IT IS PUSHED WITH A SHOVEL.</s><pb pagenum="159"/>

<s>Our people give the name of water-bags to those very large skins for <lb/>carrying water which are made of two, or two and a half, ox-hides. </s>

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<s>If much mud gradually settles in them the planks are raised <lb/>and the drains are cleaned out, for they would otherwise become stopped up <lb/>and obstructed by this accident. </s>

<s>With regard to the trough lying above </s><figure id="id.002.01.197.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/197/1.jpg"/>

<s>With regard to the trough lying above </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—TROUGH. B—HOPPER.<pb xlink:href="002/01/198.jpg" pagenum="160"/>ground, which miners place under the hoppers which are close by the shaft <lb/>houses, these are usually hollowed out of single trees. </s>

<s>A—TROUGH. B—HOPPER.<pb pagenum="160"/>ground, which miners place under the hoppers which are close by the shaft <lb/>houses, these are usually hollowed out of single trees. </s>

<s>Hoppers are generally <lb/>made of four planks, so cut on the lower side and joined together that the <lb/>top part of the hopper is broader and the bottom part narrower.</s>

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<s>Thus it happens <lb/>that if shafts are dug deep, a hillock rises around the shed of the windlass. <lb/></s>

<s>If a vein is not metal-bearing, they pour out the earth and rock without <lb/>discriminating; whereas if it is metal-bearing, they preserve these materials, <pb xlink:href="002/01/199.jpg" pagenum="161"/>which they unload separately and crush and wash. </s>

<s>If a vein is not metal-bearing, they pour out the earth and rock without <lb/>discriminating; whereas if it is metal-bearing, they preserve these materials, <pb pagenum="161"/>which they unload separately and crush and wash. </s>

<s>When they draw up <lb/>buckets of water they empty the water through the hopper into a trough, <lb/>through which it flows away.</s><figure id="id.002.01.199.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/199/1.jpg"/>

<s>When they draw up <lb/>buckets of water they empty the water through the hopper into a trough, <lb/>through which it flows away.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—TIMBER PLACED IN FRONT OF THE SHAFT. B—TIMBER PLACED AT THE BACK OF THE <lb/>SHAFT. C—POINTED STAKES. D—CROSS-TIMBERS. E—POSTS OR THICK PLANKS. <lb/>F—IRON SOCKETS. G—BARREL. H—ENDS OF BARREL. I—PIECES OF WOOD. <lb/>K—HANDLE. L—DRAWING-ROPE. M—ITS HOOK. N—BUCKET. O—BALE OF THE <lb/>BUCKET.</s>

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<s>Sometimes masses of lead are hung on to this wheel, or are fastened to the <lb/>spokes, in order that when it is turned they depress the spokes by their weight <lb/>and increase the motion; some persons for the same reason fasten into the <lb/>barrel two, three, or four iron rods, and weight their ends with lumps of lead. <lb/></s>

<s>The windlass wheel differs from the wheel of a carriage and from the one </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/200.jpg" pagenum="162"/><figure id="id.002.01.200.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/200/1.jpg"/>

<s>The windlass wheel differs from the wheel of a carriage and from the one </s><pb pagenum="162"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—BARREL. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—USUAL CRANK. D—SPOKES OF WHEEL. <lb/>E—RIM OF THE SAME WHEEL.<lb/>which is turned by water power, for it lacks the buckets of a water-wheel <lb/>and it lacks the nave of a carriage wheel. </s>

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<s>It <lb/>consists of an upright axle with iron journals at its extremities, which <lb/>turn in two iron sockets, the lower of which is fixed in a block set in the <lb/>ground and the upper one in the roof beam. </s>

<s>This axle has at its lower end a </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/201.jpg" pagenum="163"/><figure id="id.002.01.201.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/201/1.jpg"/>

<s>This axle has at its lower end a </s><pb pagenum="163"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—BLOCK. C—ROOF BEAM. D—WHEEL. E—TOOTHED-DRUM. <lb/>F—HORIZONTAL AXLE. G—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. H—DRAWING ROPE. <lb/>I—POLE. K—UPRIGHT POSTS. L—CLEATS ON THE WHEEL.<lb/>wheel made of thick planks joined firmly together, and at its upper end a <lb/>toothed drum; this toothed drum turns another drum made of rundles, which <lb/>is on a horizontal axle. </s>

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<s>The lower ends of all of <lb/>them are mortised into separate sills laid flat upon the ground; these sills <lb/>are five feet long, a foot and a half wide, and a foot thick. </s>

<s>Each beam is also <lb/>connected with its sill by a post, whose upper end is mortised into the beam <pb xlink:href="002/01/202.jpg" pagenum="164"/>and its lower end mortised into the sill; these posts are four feet long, one <lb/>foot thick, and one foot wide. </s>

<s>Each beam is also <lb/>connected with its sill by a post, whose upper end is mortised into the beam <pb pagenum="164"/>and its lower end mortised into the sill; these posts are four feet long, one <lb/>foot thick, and one foot wide. </s>

<s>Thus a circular area is made, the diameter of <lb/>which is fifty feet; in the middle of this area a hole is sunk to a depth of ten <lb/>feet, and rammed down tight, and in order to give it sufficient firmness, it is <lb/>strengthened with contiguous small timbers, through which pins are driven, <lb/>for by them the earth around the hole is held so that it cannot fall in. </s>

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<s>There are sixteen posts and eight cross-beams, and upon these cross-beams <lb/>are laid two timbers a foot wide and three palms thick, hollowed out to a <lb/>width of half a foot and to a depth of five digits; the one is laid upon the <lb/>upper cross-beams and the other upon the lower; each is long enough to <lb/>reach nearly from the drum of the whim to the shaft. </s>

<s>Near the same drum <lb/>each timber has a small round wooden roller six digits thick, whose ends are </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/203.jpg" pagenum="165"/><figure id="id.002.01.203.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/203/1.jpg"/>

<s>Near the same drum <lb/>each timber has a small round wooden roller six digits thick, whose ends are </s><pb pagenum="165"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—UPRIGHT BEAMS. B—SILLS LAID FLAT UPON THE GROUND. C—POSTS. D—AREA. <lb/>E—SILL SET AT THE BOTTOM OF THE HOLE. F—AXLE. G—DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. <lb/>H—DRUM. I—WINDING-ROPES. K—BUCKET. L—SMALL PIECES OF WOOD HANGING <lb/>FROM DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. M—SHORT WOODEN BLOCK. N—CHAIN. O—POLE BAR. <lb/>P—GRAPPLING HOOK. (Some members mentioned in the text are not shown).<pb xlink:href="002/01/204.jpg" pagenum="166"/>covered with iron bands and revolve in iron rings. </s>

<s>A—UPRIGHT BEAMS. B—SILLS LAID FLAT UPON THE GROUND. C—POSTS. D—AREA. <lb/>E—SILL SET AT THE BOTTOM OF THE HOLE. F—AXLE. G—DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. <lb/>H—DRUM. I—WINDING-ROPES. K—BUCKET. L—SMALL PIECES OF WOOD HANGING <lb/>FROM DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. M—SHORT WOODEN BLOCK. N—CHAIN. O—POLE BAR. <lb/>P—GRAPPLING HOOK. (Some members mentioned in the text are not shown).<pb pagenum="166"/>covered with iron bands and revolve in iron rings. </s>

<s>Each timber also has a <lb/>wooden pulley, which together with its iron axle revolves in holes in the <lb/>timber. </s>

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<s>A workman sits on the short <lb/>beam when the machine needs to be stopped, and lowers it; he then inserts <lb/>a plank or small stick so that the two timbers are held down and cannot be <lb/>raised. </s>

<s>In this way the brake is raised, and seizing the drum, presses it <lb/>so tightly that sparks often fly from it; the suspended timber to which <lb/>the short beam is attached, has several holes in which the chain is </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/205.jpg" pagenum="167"/><figure id="id.002.01.205.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/205/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—TOOTHED DRUM WHICH IS ON THE UPRIGHT AXLE. B—HORIZONTAL AXLE. C—DRUM <lb/>WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. D—WHEEL NEAR IT. E—DRUM MADE OF HUBS. <lb/>F—BRAKE. G—OSCILLATING BEAM. H—SHORT BEAM. I—HOOK.<pb xlink:href="002/01/206.jpg" pagenum="168"/>fixed, so that it may be raised as much as is convenient. </s>

<s>A—TOOTHED DRUM WHICH IS ON THE UPRIGHT AXLE. B—HORIZONTAL AXLE. C—DRUM <lb/>WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. D—WHEEL NEAR IT. E—DRUM MADE OF HUBS. <lb/>F—BRAKE. G—OSCILLATING BEAM. H—SHORT BEAM. I—HOOK.<pb pagenum="168"/>fixed, so that it may be raised as much as is convenient. </s>

<s>Above this wheel <lb/>there are boards to prevent the water from dripping down and wetting it, for <lb/>if it becomes wet the brake will not grip the machine so well. </s>

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<s>Sitting on these sacks, not without risk of his life, the bold <lb/>driver guides the sledge as it rushes down the mountain into the valleys with <lb/>a stick, which he carries in his hand; when it is rushing down too <lb/>quickly he arrests it with the stick, or with the same stick brings it back to <lb/>the track when it is turning aside from its proper course. </s>

<s>A—SLEDGE WITH BOX PLACED ON IT. B—SLEDGE WITH SACKS PLACED ON IT. C—STICK. <lb/>D—DOGS WITH PACK-SADDLES. E—PIG-SKIN SACKS TIED TO A ROPE.<pb xlink:href="002/01/207.jpg" pagenum="169"/>Noricians<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> collect ore during the winter into sacks made of bristly pigskins, <lb/>and drag them down from the highest mountains, which neither horses, <lb/>mules nor asses can climb. </s>

<s>A—SLEDGE WITH BOX PLACED ON IT. B—SLEDGE WITH SACKS PLACED ON IT. C—STICK. <lb/>D—DOGS WITH PACK-SADDLES. E—PIG-SKIN SACKS TIED TO A ROPE.<pb pagenum="169"/>Noricians<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> collect ore during the winter into sacks made of bristly pigskins, <lb/>and drag them down from the highest mountains, which neither horses, <lb/>mules nor asses can climb. </s>

<s>Strong dogs, that are trained to bear pack <lb/>saddles, carry these sacks when empty into the mountains. </s>

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<s>Into the buckets, drawn by these five machines, the boys or men throw <lb/>the earth and broken rock with shovels, or they fill them with their hands; <lb/>hence they get their name of shovellers. </s>

<s>As I have said, the same <lb/>machines raise not only dry loads, but also wet ones, or water; but before <lb/>I explain the varied and diverse kinds of machines by which miners are wont </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/208.jpg" pagenum="170"/><figure id="id.002.01.208.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/208/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—HORSES WITH PACK-SADDLES. B—LONG BOX PLACED ON THE SLOPE OF THE CLIFF. <lb/>C—CLEATS THEREOF. D—WHEELBARROW. E—TWO-WHEELED CART. F—TRUNKS OF <lb/>TREES. G—WAGON. H—ORE BEING UNLOADED FROM THE WAGON. I—BARS. <lb/>K—MASTER OF THE WORKS MARKING THE NUMBER OF CARTS ON A STICK. L—BOXES <lb/>INTO WHICH ARE THROWN THE ORE WHICH HAS TO BE DIVIDED.<pb xlink:href="002/01/209.jpg" pagenum="171"/>to draw water alone, I will explain how heavy bodies, such as axles, iron <lb/>chains, pipes, and heavy timbers, should be lowered into deep vertical shafts. <lb/></s>

<s>A—HORSES WITH PACK-SADDLES. B—LONG BOX PLACED ON THE SLOPE OF THE CLIFF. <lb/>C—CLEATS THEREOF. D—WHEELBARROW. E—TWO-WHEELED CART. F—TRUNKS OF <lb/>TREES. G—WAGON. H—ORE BEING UNLOADED FROM THE WAGON. I—BARS. <lb/>K—MASTER OF THE WORKS MARKING THE NUMBER OF CARTS ON A STICK. L—BOXES <lb/>INTO WHICH ARE THROWN THE ORE WHICH HAS TO BE DIVIDED.<pb pagenum="171"/>to draw water alone, I will explain how heavy bodies, such as axles, iron <lb/>chains, pipes, and heavy timbers, should be lowered into deep vertical shafts. <lb/></s>

<s>A windlass is erected whose barrel has on each end four straight levers; it <lb/>is fixed into upright beams and around it is wound a rope, one end of which <lb/>is fastened to the barrel and the other to those heavy bodies which are slowly <lb/>lowered down by workmen; and if these halt at any part of the shaft they <lb/>are drawn up a little way. </s>

<s>When these bodies are very heavy, then behind <lb/>this windlass another is erected just like it, that their combined strength <lb/>may be equal to the load, and that it may be lowered slowly. </s>

<s>Sometimes for <lb/>the same reason, a pulley is fastened with cords to the roof-beam, and the rope <lb/>descends and ascends over it.</s><figure id="id.002.01.209.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/209/1.jpg"/>

<s>Sometimes for <lb/>the same reason, a pulley is fastened with cords to the roof-beam, and the rope <lb/>descends and ascends over it.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—WINDLASS. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—UPRIGHT BEAMS. D—ROPE. E—PULLEY. <lb/>F—TIMBERS TO BE LOWERED.</s>

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<s>It is hoisted up after <lb/>being poured into buckets or water-bags; the water-bags are generally <lb/>brought up by a machine whose water-wheels have double paddles, while the <lb/>buckets are brought up by the five machines already described, although in <lb/>certain localities the fourth machine also hauls up water-bags of moderate <lb/>size. </s>

<s>Water is drawn up also by chains of dippers, or by suction pumps, or <pb xlink:href="002/01/210.jpg" pagenum="172"/>by “rag and chain” pumps.<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> When there is but a small quantity, it is <lb/>either brought up in buckets or drawn up by chains of dippers or suction <lb/>pumps, and when there is much water it is either drawn up in hide bags or <lb/>by rag and chain pumps.</s>

<s>Water is drawn up also by chains of dippers, or by suction pumps, or <pb pagenum="172"/>by “rag and chain” pumps.<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> When there is but a small quantity, it is <lb/>either brought up in buckets or drawn up by chains of dippers or suction <lb/>pumps, and when there is much water it is either drawn up in hide bags or <lb/>by rag and chain pumps.</s>

<s>First of all, I will describe the machines which draw water by chains <lb/>of dippers, of which there are three kinds. </s>

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<s>When the shafts are inclined, the mouths of the dippers project and are covered <lb/>on the top that they may not spill out the water, but when the shafts are <lb/>vertical the dippers do not require a cover. </s>

<s>By fitting the end of the lowest <lb/>small axle into the crank, the man who works the crank turns the axle, and at <lb/>the same time the drum whose rundles turn the toothed wheel of the second <lb/>axle; by this wheel is driven the one that is made of rundles, which <lb/></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/211.jpg" pagenum="173"/><figure id="id.002.01.211.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/211/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—IRON FRAME. B—LOWEST AXLE. C—FLY-WHEEL. D—SMALLER DRUM MADE OF <lb/>RUNDLES. E—SECOND AXLE. F—SMALLER TOOTHED WHEEL G—LARGER DRUM MADE <lb/>OF RUNDLES. H—UPPER AXLE. I—LARGER TOOTHED WHEEL. K—BEARINGS. <lb/>L—PILLOW. M—FRAMEWORK. N—OAK TIMBER O—SUPPORT OF IRON BEARING <lb/>P—ROLLER Q—UPPER DRUM. R—CLAMPS. S—CHAIN. T—LINKS. V—DIPPERS <lb/>X—CRANK. Y—LOWER DRUM OR BALANCE WEIGHT.<pb xlink:href="002/01/212.jpg" pagenum="174"/>again turns the toothed wheel of the upper small axle and thus the drum to <lb/>which the clamps are fixed. </s>

<s>A—IRON FRAME. B—LOWEST AXLE. C—FLY-WHEEL. D—SMALLER DRUM MADE OF <lb/>RUNDLES. E—SECOND AXLE. F—SMALLER TOOTHED WHEEL G—LARGER DRUM MADE <lb/>OF RUNDLES. H—UPPER AXLE. I—LARGER TOOTHED WHEEL. K—BEARINGS. <lb/>L—PILLOW. M—FRAMEWORK. N—OAK TIMBER O—SUPPORT OF IRON BEARING <lb/>P—ROLLER Q—UPPER DRUM. R—CLAMPS. S—CHAIN. T—LINKS. V—DIPPERS <lb/>X—CRANK. Y—LOWER DRUM OR BALANCE WEIGHT.<pb pagenum="174"/>again turns the toothed wheel of the upper small axle and thus the drum to <lb/>which the clamps are fixed. </s>

<s>In this way the chain, together with the empty <lb/>dippers, is slowly let down, close to the footwall side of the vein, into the sump <lb/>to the bottom of the balance drum, which turns on a little iron axle, both ends <lb/>of which are set in a thick iron bearing. </s>

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<s>Thus there are always three of the dippers inverted and pouring <lb/>water into a lip, from which it flows away into the drain of the tunnel. </s>

<s>This <lb/>machine is less useful, because it cannot be constructed without great expense, <lb/>and it carries off but little water and is somewhat slow, as also are other <lb/>machines which possess a great number of drums.</s><figure id="id.002.01.212.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/212/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. B—AXLE. C—DOUBLE CHAIN. D—LINK <lb/>OF DOUBLE CHAIN. E—DIPPERS. F—SIMPLE CLAMPS. G—CLAMP WITH TRIPLE CURVES.</s>

<s>The next machine of this kind, described in a few words by Vitruvius,<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>more rapidly brings up dippers, holding a <emph type="italics"/>congius;<emph.end type="italics"/> for this reason, it is <pb xlink:href="002/01/213.jpg" pagenum="175"/>more useful than the first one for drawing water out of shafts, into which <lb/>much water is continually flowing. </s>

<s>The next machine of this kind, described in a few words by Vitruvius,<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>more rapidly brings up dippers, holding a <emph type="italics"/>congius;<emph.end type="italics"/> for this reason, it is <pb pagenum="175"/>more useful than the first one for drawing water out of shafts, into which <lb/>much water is continually flowing. </s>

<s>This machine has no iron frame nor <lb/>drums, but has around its axle a wooden wheel which is turned by treading; <lb/>the axle, since it has no drum, does not last very long. </s>

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<s>The third machine, which far excels the two just described, is made <lb/>when a running stream can be diverted to a mine; the impetus of the <lb/>stream striking the paddles revolves a water-wheel in place of the wheel <lb/>turned by treading. </s>

<s>With regard to the axle, it is like the second machine, </s><figure id="id.002.01.213.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/213/1.jpg"/>

<s>With regard to the axle, it is like the second machine, </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—WHEEL WHOSE PADDLES ARE TURNED BY THE FORCE OF THE STREAM. B—AXLE. <lb/>C—DRUM OF AXLE, TO WHICH CLAMPS ARE FIXED. D—CHAIN. E—LINK. F—DIPPERS. <lb/>G—BALANCE DRUM.<lb/>but the drum which is round the axle, the chain, and the balance drum, are <lb/>like the first machine. </s>

<s>It has much more capacious dippers than even the <lb/>second machine, but since the dippers are frequently broken, miners rarely <lb/>use these machines; for they prefer to lift out small quantities of water by <lb/>the first five machines or to draw it up by suction pumps, or, if there is <pb xlink:href="002/01/214.jpg" pagenum="176"/>much water, to drain it by the rag and chain pump or to bring it up in <lb/>water-bags.</s>

<s>It has much more capacious dippers than even the <lb/>second machine, but since the dippers are frequently broken, miners rarely <lb/>use these machines; for they prefer to lift out small quantities of water by <lb/>the first five machines or to draw it up by suction pumps, or, if there is <pb pagenum="176"/>much water, to drain it by the rag and chain pump or to bring it up in <lb/>water-bags.</s>

<s>Enough, then, of the first sort of pumps. </s>

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Line 4013

<s>To one beam a pipe is fixed with iron clamps; <lb/>to the other is fixed either the forked branch of a tree or a timber cut out at <lb/>the top in the shape of a fork, and through the prongs of the fork a round <lb/>hole is bored. </s>

<s>Through a wide round hole in the middle of a sweep passes </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/215.jpg" pagenum="177"/><figure id="id.002.01.215.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/215/1.jpg"/>

<s>Through a wide round hole in the middle of a sweep passes </s><pb pagenum="177"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—SUMP. B—PIPES. C—FLOORING. D—TRUNK. E—PERFORATIONS OF TRUNK. <lb/>F—VALVE. G—SPOUT. H—PISTON-ROD. I—HAND-BAR OF PISTON. K—SHOE. L—DISC <lb/>WITH ROUND OPENINGS. M—DISC WITH OVAL OPENINGS. N—COVER. O—THIS MAN IS <lb/>BORING LOGS AND MAKING THEM INTO PIPES. P—BORER WITH AUGER. Q—WIDER BORER.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/216.jpg" pagenum="178"/><figure id="id.002.01.216.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/216/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—ERECT TIMBER. B—AXLE. C—SWEEP WHICH TURNS ABOUT THE AXLE. D—PISTON <lb/>ROD. E—CROSS-BAR. F—RING WITH WHICH TWO PIPES ARE GENERALLY JOINED.<lb/>an iron axle, so fastened in the holes in the fork that it remains fixed, and <lb/>the sweep turns on this axle. </s>

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<s>To the middle of this axle are fixed two wooden <lb/>bars, to the end of one of which is fixed the piston, and to the end of the <lb/>other a heavy piece of wood, but short, so that it can pass between the two <lb/>posts and may move backward and forward. </s>

<s>When the workman pushes <lb/>this piece of wood, the piston is drawn out of the pipe; when it returns by its </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/217.jpg" pagenum="179"/><figure id="id.002.01.217.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/217/1.jpg"/>

<s>When the workman pushes <lb/>this piece of wood, the piston is drawn out of the pipe; when it returns by its </s><pb pagenum="179"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—POSTS. B—AXLE. C—WOODEN BARS. D—PISTON ROD. E—SHORT PIECE OF WOOD. <lb/>F—DRAIN. G—THIS MAN IS DIVERTING THE WATER WHICH IS FLOWING OUT OF THE DRAIN, <lb/>TO PREVENT IT FROM FLOWING INTO THE TRENCHES WHICH ARE BEING DUG.<lb/>own weight, the piston is pushed in. </s>

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<s>The axle <lb/>is placed between the two halves of this box, and the first part of the axle, <lb/>which is in contact with the wood, is round and the straight end forms a <lb/>journal. </s>

<s>Then the axle is bent down the depth of a foot and again bent so <lb/>as to continue straight, and at this point a round piston-rod hangs from it; <lb/>next it is bent up as far as it was bent down; then it continues a little way <lb/>straight again, and then it is bent up a foot and again continues straight, <lb/>at which point a second round piston-rod is hung from it; afterward it </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/218.jpg" pagenum="180"/><figure id="id.002.01.218.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/218/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—BOX B—LOWER PART OF BOX. C—UPPER PART OF SAME. D—CLAMPS. E—PIPES <lb/>BELOW THE BOX. F—COLUMN PIPE FIXED ABOVE THE BOX. G—IRON AXLE. H—PISTON<lb/>RODS. I—WASHERS TO PROTECT THE BEARINGS. K—LEATHERS. L—EYES IN THE AXLE. <lb/>M—RODS WHOSE ENDS ARE WEIGHTED WITH LUMPS OF LEAD. N—CRANK. <lb/>(<emph type="italics"/>This plate is unlettered in the first edition but corrected in those later.<emph.end type="italics"/>)<pb xlink:href="002/01/219.jpg" pagenum="181"/>is bent down the same distance as it was bent up the last time; the other <lb/>end of it, which also acts as a journal, is straight. </s>

<s>A—BOX B—LOWER PART OF BOX. C—UPPER PART OF SAME. D—CLAMPS. E—PIPES <lb/>BELOW THE BOX. F—COLUMN PIPE FIXED ABOVE THE BOX. G—IRON AXLE. H—PISTON<lb/>RODS. I—WASHERS TO PROTECT THE BEARINGS. K—LEATHERS. L—EYES IN THE AXLE. <lb/>M—RODS WHOSE ENDS ARE WEIGHTED WITH LUMPS OF LEAD. N—CRANK. <lb/>(<emph type="italics"/>This plate is unlettered in the first edition but corrected in those later.<emph.end type="italics"/>)<pb pagenum="181"/>is bent down the same distance as it was bent up the last time; the other <lb/>end of it, which also acts as a journal, is straight. </s>

<s>This part which protrudes <lb/>through the wood is protected by two iron washers in the shape of discs, to <lb/>which are fastened two leather washers of the same shape and size, in order <lb/>to prevent the water which is drawn into the box from gushing out. </s>

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<s>The upper part of each of these piston-rods, <lb/>which is half a foot square, is held in a slot in a cross-beam; the lower part, <lb/>which drops down into the pipes, is made of another piece of wood and is <lb/>round. </s>

<s>Each of these three pumps is composed of two lengths of pipe fixed </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/220.jpg" pagenum="182"/><figure id="id.002.01.220.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/220/1.jpg"/>

<s>Each of these three pumps is composed of two lengths of pipe fixed </s><pb pagenum="182"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—TAPPETS OF PISTON-RODS. B—CAMS OF THE BARREL. C—SQUARE UPPER PARTS <lb/>OF PISTON-RODS. D—LOWER ROUNDED PARTS OF PISTON-RODS. E—CROSS-BEAMS. <lb/>F—PIPES. G—APERTURES OF PIPES. H—TROUGH. (Fifth kind of pump—see p. </s>

<s>A—WATER-WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—TRUNK ON WHICH THE LOWEST PIPE STANDS. <lb/>D—BASKET SURROUNDING TRUNK. (Sixth kind of pump—see p. </s>

<s>184.)<pb xlink:href="002/01/222.jpg" pagenum="184"/>to the shaft timbers. </s>

<s>184.)<pb pagenum="184"/>to the shaft timbers. </s>

<s>This machine draws the water higher, as much as <lb/>twenty-four feet. </s>

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<s>To prevent friction, the ends of the pump-rods are <lb/>protected by iron plates or intervening leathers. </s>

<s>This first pump-rod is <lb/>about twelve feet long, the other two are twenty-six feet, and each is a palm </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/223.jpg" pagenum="185"/><figure id="id.002.01.223.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/223/1.jpg"/>

<s>This first pump-rod is <lb/>about twelve feet long, the other two are twenty-six feet, and each is a palm </s><pb pagenum="185"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—SHAFT. B—BOTTOM PUMP. C—FIRST TANK. D—SECOND PUMP. E—SECOND TANK. <lb/>F—THIRD PUMP. G—TROUGH. H—THE IRON SET IN THE AXLE. I—FIRST PUMP ROD. <lb/>K—SECOND PUMP ROD. L—THIRD PUMP ROD. M—FIRST PISTON ROD. N—SECOND <lb/>PISTON ROD. O—THIRD PISTON ROD. P—LITTLE AXLES. Q—“CLAWS.”<pb xlink:href="002/01/224.jpg" pagenum="186"/>wide and three digits thick. </s>

<s>The sides of each pump-rod are covered and <lb/>protected by iron plates, which are held on by iron screws, so that a part <lb/>which has received damage can be repaired. </s>

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<s>The following is the way this machine <lb/>draws water from a shaft. </s>

<s>The wheel being turned raises the first pump<lb/>rod, and the pump-rod raises the first “claw,” and thus also the second <lb/>pump-rod, and the first piston-rod; then the second pump-rod raises the <lb/>second “claw,” and thus the third pump-rod and the second piston-rod; <lb/>then the third pump-rod raises the third “claw” and the third piston-rod, <pb xlink:href="002/01/225.jpg" pagenum="187"/>for there hangs no pump-rod from the iron key of these claws, for it can be of <lb/>no use in the last pump. </s>

<s>The wheel being turned raises the first pump<lb/>rod, and the pump-rod raises the first “claw,” and thus also the second <lb/>pump-rod, and the first piston-rod; then the second pump-rod raises the <lb/>second “claw,” and thus the third pump-rod and the second piston-rod; <lb/>then the third pump-rod raises the third “claw” and the third piston-rod, <pb pagenum="187"/>for there hangs no pump-rod from the iron key of these claws, for it can be of <lb/>no use in the last pump. </s>

<s>In turn, when the first pump-rod descends, each <lb/>set of “claws” is lowered, each pump-rod and each piston-rod. </s>

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<s>Lastly, it is necessary that the shafts from which the water is pumped out in <lb/>pipes should be vertical, for as in the case of the hauling machines, all pumps <lb/>which have pipes do not draw the water so high if the pipes are inclined in <lb/>inclined shafts, as if they are placed vertically in vertical shafts.</s>

<s>If the river does not supply enough water-power to turn the last<lb/>described pump, which happens because of the nature of the locality <lb/>or occurs during the summer season when there are daily droughts, a <lb/>machine is built with a wheel so low and light that the water of ever so little a </s><figure id="id.002.01.225.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/225/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—WATER WHEEL OF UPPER MACHINE. B—ITS PUMP. C—ITS TROUGH. D—WHEEL OF <lb/>LOWER MACHINE. E—ITS PUMP. F—RACE.<pb xlink:href="002/01/226.jpg" pagenum="188"/>stream can turn it. </s>

<s>A—WATER WHEEL OF UPPER MACHINE. B—ITS PUMP. C—ITS TROUGH. D—WHEEL OF <lb/>LOWER MACHINE. E—ITS PUMP. F—RACE.<pb pagenum="188"/>stream can turn it. </s>

<s>This water, falling into a race, runs therefrom on to a <lb/>second high and heavy wheel of a lower machine, whose pump lifts the water <lb/>out of a deep shaft. </s>

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Line 4205

<s>Each length of pipe is encircled and protected by <lb/>five iron bands, a palm wide and a digit thick, placed at equal distances from <lb/>each other; the first band on the pipe is shared in common with the <lb/>preceding length of pipe into which it is fitted, the last band with the succeed<lb/>ing length of pipe which is fitted into it. </s>

<s>Each length of pipe, except the <lb/>first, is bevelled on the outer circumference of the upper end to a distance <lb/>of seven digits and for a depth of three digits, in order that it may be inserted <lb/>into the length of pipe which goes before it; each, except the last, is reamed <lb/>out on the inside of the lower end to a like distance, but to the depth </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/227.jpg" pagenum="189"/><figure id="id.002.01.227.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/227/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—UPPER AXLE. B—WHEEL WHOSE BUCKETS THE FORCE OF THE STREAM STRIKES. <lb/>C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—SECOND AXLE. E—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. F—CURVED <lb/>ROUND IRONS. G—ROWS OF PUMPS.<pb xlink:href="002/01/228.jpg" pagenum="190"/>of a palm, that it may be able to take the end of the pipe which <lb/>follows. </s>

<s>A—UPPER AXLE. B—WHEEL WHOSE BUCKETS THE FORCE OF THE STREAM STRIKES. <lb/>C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—SECOND AXLE. E—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. F—CURVED <lb/>ROUND IRONS. G—ROWS OF PUMPS.<pb pagenum="190"/>of a palm, that it may be able to take the end of the pipe which <lb/>follows. </s>

<s>And each length of pipe is fixed with iron clamps to the timbers of <lb/>the shaft, that it may remain stationary. </s>

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<s>When the stone nearly touches the beam, since this indicates that the water <lb/>has been exhausted from the sump by the pump, the overseer in charge of the <lb/>machine closes the water-race and stops the water-wheel: when the stone <lb/>nearly touches the ground at the side of the shaft, this indicates that the <lb/>sump is full of water which has again collected in it, because the water raises <lb/>the plank and thus the stone drags back both the rope and the iron wire; <lb/>then the overseer opens the water-race, whereupon the water of the stream <lb/>again strikes the buckets of the water-wheel and turns the pump. </s>

<s>As <lb/>workmen generally cease from their labours on the yearly holidays, and </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/229.jpg" pagenum="191"/><figure id="id.002.01.229.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/229/1.jpg"/>

<s>As <lb/>workmen generally cease from their labours on the yearly holidays, and </s><pb pagenum="191"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—JOURNALS. D—PILLOWS. E—DRUM. F—CLAMPS. <lb/>G—DRAWING-CHAIN. H—TIMBERS. I—BALLS. K—PIPE. L—RACE OF STREAM.<pb xlink:href="002/01/230.jpg" pagenum="192"/>sometimes on working days, and are thus not always near the pump, and as <lb/>the pump, if necessary, must continue to draw water all the time, a bell rings <lb/>aloud continuously, indicating that this pump, or any other kind, is uninjured <lb/>and nothing is preventing its turning. </s>

<s>A—WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—JOURNALS. D—PILLOWS. E—DRUM. F—CLAMPS. <lb/>G—DRAWING-CHAIN. H—TIMBERS. I—BALLS. K—PIPE. L—RACE OF STREAM.<pb pagenum="192"/>sometimes on working days, and are thus not always near the pump, and as <lb/>the pump, if necessary, must continue to draw water all the time, a bell rings <lb/>aloud continuously, indicating that this pump, or any other kind, is uninjured <lb/>and nothing is preventing its turning. </s>

<s>The bell is hung by a cord from <lb/>a small wooden axle held in the timbers which stand over the shaft, and <lb/>a second long cord whose upper end is fastened to the small axle is lowered <lb/>into the shaft; to the lower end of this cord is fastened a piece of wood; <lb/>and as often as a cam on the main axle strikes it, so often does the bell ring <lb/>and give forth a sound.</s>

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Line 4271

<s>Above the roof of the chamber there are mortised <lb/>into the upright axle the ends of two beams which rise obliquely; the upper <lb/>ends of these beams support double cross-beams, likewise mortised to the <lb/>axle. </s>

<s>In the outer end of each cross-beam there is mortised a small wooden <lb/>piece which appears to hang down; in this wooden piece there is similarly </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/231.jpg" pagenum="193"/><figure id="id.002.01.231.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/231/1.jpg"/>

<s>In the outer end of each cross-beam there is mortised a small wooden <lb/>piece which appears to hang down; in this wooden piece there is similarly </s><pb pagenum="193"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—TOOTHED WHEEL. C—TEETH. D—HORIZONTAL AXLE. <lb/>E—DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. F—SECOND DRUM. G—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb/>H—THE BALLS.<pb xlink:href="002/01/232.jpg" pagenum="194"/>mortised at the lower end a short board; this has an iron key which engages <lb/>a chain, and this chain again a pole-bar. </s>

<s>A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—TOOTHED WHEEL. C—TEETH. D—HORIZONTAL AXLE. <lb/>E—DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. F—SECOND DRUM. G—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb/>H—THE BALLS.<pb pagenum="194"/>mortised at the lower end a short board; this has an iron key which engages <lb/>a chain, and this chain again a pole-bar. </s>

<s>This machine, which draws water <lb/>from a shaft two hundred and forty feet deep, is worked by thirty-two horses; <lb/>eight of them work for four hours, and then these rest for twelve hours, and <lb/>the same number take their place. </s>

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<s>At Schemnitz, in the Carpathian mountains, there <lb/>are three pumps, of which the lowest lifts water from the lowest sump to <lb/>the first drains, through which it flows into the second sump; the intermediate <lb/>one lifts from the second sump to the second drain, from which it flows into <lb/>the third sump; and the upper one lifts it to the drains of the tunnel, through <lb/>which it flows away. </s>

<s>This system of three machines of this kind is turned <lb/>by ninety-six horses; these horses go down to the machines by an inclined </s><figure id="id.002.01.232.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/232/1.jpg"/>

<s>This system of three machines of this kind is turned <lb/>by ninety-six horses; these horses go down to the machines by an inclined </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—AXLE. B—DRUM. C—DRAWING-CHAIN. D—BALLS. E—CLAMPS.<pb xlink:href="002/01/233.jpg" pagenum="195"/>shaft, which slopes and twists like a screw and gradually descends. </s>

<s>A—AXLE. B—DRUM. C—DRAWING-CHAIN. D—BALLS. E—CLAMPS.<pb pagenum="195"/>shaft, which slopes and twists like a screw and gradually descends. </s>

<s>The <lb/>lowest of these machines is set in a deep place, which is distant from the <lb/>surface of the ground 660 feet.</s>

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Line 4301

<s>Human strength cannot draw water higher than this, because such very <lb/>heavy labour exhausts not only men, but even horses; only water-power <lb/>can drive continuously a drum of this kind. </s>

<s>Several pumps of this kind, as <lb/>of the last, are often built for the purpose of mining on a single vein, <lb/>but they are arranged differently for different positions and depths.</s><figure id="id.002.01.233.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/233/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—AXLES. B—LEVERS. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. <lb/>E—DRUM IN WHICH IRON CLAMPS ARE FIXED.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/234.jpg" pagenum="196"/>

<s>A—AXLES. B—LEVERS. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. <lb/>E—DRUM IN WHICH IRON CLAMPS ARE FIXED.</s><pb pagenum="196"/>

<s>The fifth pump of this kind is partly like the third and partly like the <lb/>fourth, because it is turned by strong men like the last, and like the third <lb/>it has two axles and three drums, though each axle is horizontal. </s>

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<s>The casing or covering of the wheel is made of joined boards to <lb/>which strips are affixed on the inner side. </s>

<s>The wheel itself is thirty-six feet <lb/>in diameter, and is mortised to an axle, and it has, as I have already said, <lb/>two rows of buckets, of which one is set the opposite way to the other, so <lb/>that the wheel may be turned toward the reservoir or in the opposite </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/235.jpg" pagenum="197"/><figure id="id.002.01.235.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/235/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—AXLES. B—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. C—TOOTHED WHEEL. <lb/>D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. E—DRUM TO WHICH ARE FIXED IRON CLAMPS. <lb/>F—SECOND WHEEL. G—BALLS.<pb xlink:href="002/01/236.jpg" pagenum="198"/>direction. </s>

<s>A—AXLES. B—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. C—TOOTHED WHEEL. <lb/>D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. E—DRUM TO WHICH ARE FIXED IRON CLAMPS. <lb/>F—SECOND WHEEL. G—BALLS.<pb pagenum="198"/>direction. </s>

<s>The axle is square and is thirty-five feet long and two feet thick <lb/>and wide. </s>

<s>Beyond the wheel, at a distance of six feet, the axle has four hubs, <lb/>one foot wide and thick, each one of which is four feet distant from the next;<lb/>to these hubs are fixed by iron nails as many pieces of wood as are necessary <lb/>to cover the hubs, and, in order that the wood pieces may fit tight, they are <lb/>broader on the outside and narrower on the inside; in this way a drum is <lb/>made, around which is wound a chain to whose ends are hooked leather bags. <lb/></s>

<s>Beyond the wheel, at a distance of six feet, the axle has four hubs, <lb/>one foot wide and thick, each one of which is four feet distant from the next<gap/><lb/>to these hubs are fixed by iron nails as many pieces of wood as are necessary <lb/>to cover the hubs, and, in order that the wood pieces may fit tight, they are <lb/>broader on the outside and narrower on the inside; in this way a drum is <lb/>made, around which is wound a chain to whose ends are hooked leather bags. <lb/></s>

<s>The reason why a drum of this kind is made, is that the axle may be kept in <lb/>good condition, because this drum when it becomes worn away by use can <lb/>be repaired easily. </s>

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<s>When that part of the chain which <lb/>has been pulled on to the floor has been wound up again, and has been let <lb/>down over the shaft from the drum, he takes out the large hook which was <lb/>fastened into a link of the chain. </s>

<s>The fifth man stands in a sort of cross-cut <lb/>beside the sump, that he may not be hurt, if it should happen that a link </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/237.jpg" pagenum="199"/><figure id="id.002.01.237.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/237/1.jpg"/>

<s>The fifth man stands in a sort of cross-cut <lb/>beside the sump, that he may not be hurt, if it should happen that a link </s><pb pagenum="199"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—RESERVOIR. B—RACE. C, D—LEVERS. E, F—TROUGHS UNDER THE WATER GATES. <lb/>G, H—DOUBLE ROWS OF BUCKETS. I—AXLE. K—LARGER DRUM. L—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb/>M—BAG. N—HANGING CAGE. O—MAN WHO DIRECTS THE MACHINE. P, Q—MEN <lb/>EMPTYING BAGS.<pb xlink:href="002/01/238.jpg" pagenum="200"/>is broken and part of the chain or anything else should fall down; he guides <lb/>the bag with a wooden shovel, and fills it with water if it fails to take <lb/>in the water spontaneously. </s>

<s>A—RESERVOIR. B—RACE. C, D—LEVERS. E, F—TROUGHS UNDER THE WATER GATES. <lb/>G, H—DOUBLE ROWS OF BUCKETS. I—AXLE. K—LARGER DRUM. L—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb/>M—BAG. N—HANGING CAGE. O—MAN WHO DIRECTS THE MACHINE. P, Q—MEN <lb/>EMPTYING BAGS.<pb pagenum="200"/>is broken and part of the chain or anything else should fall down; he guides <lb/>the bag with a wooden shovel, and fills it with water if it fails to take <lb/>in the water spontaneously. </s>

<s>In these days, they sew an iron band into the <lb/>top of each bag that it may constantly remain open, and when lowered into <lb/>the sump may fill itself with water, and there is no need for a man to act as <lb/>governor of the bags. </s>

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<s>The planks are roofed above with a <lb/>cover made in a circular shape, and are open below, in order that the wind may <lb/>not be diverted upward and escape, but may be carried downward; and there<lb/>by the winds of necessity blow into the shafts through these four openings. <lb/></s>

<s>However, there is no need to roof this kind of machine in those localities in <lb/>which it can be so placed that the wind can blow down through its topmost <lb/>part.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/239.jpg" pagenum="201"/><figure id="id.002.01.239.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/239/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—SILLS. B—POINTED STAKES. C—CROSS-BEAMS. D—UPRIGHT PLANKS. <lb/>E—HOLLOWS. F—WINDS. G—COVERING DISC. H—SHAFTS. I—MACHINE <lb/>WITHOUT A COVERING.</s>

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<s>The third of this genus of machine is made of a pipe or pipes and <lb/>a barrel. </s>

<s>Above the uppermost pipe there is erected a wooden barrel, four </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/240.jpg" pagenum="202"/><figure id="id.002.01.240.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/240/1.jpg"/>

<s>Above the uppermost pipe there is erected a wooden barrel, four </s><pb pagenum="202"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—PROJECTING MOUTH OF CONDUIT. B—PLANKS FIXED TO THE MOUTH OF THE CONDUIT <lb/>WHICH DOES NOT PROJECT.<lb/>feet high and three feet in diameter, bound with wooden hoops; it has a <lb/>square blow-hole always open, which catches the breezes and guides them <lb/>down either by a pipe into a conduit or by many pipes into the shaft. </s>

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<s>This wing is made of thin boards and fixed to the upper <lb/>part of the barrel on the side furthest away from the blow-hole; this, as I <lb/>have said, is square and always open. </s>

<s>The wind, from whatever quarter of <pb xlink:href="002/01/241.jpg" pagenum="203"/>the world it blows, drives the wing straight toward the opposite direction, in <lb/>which way the barrel turns the blow-hole towards the wind itself; the <lb/>blow-hole receives the wind, and it is guided down into the shaft by means <lb/>of the conduit or pipes.</s><figure id="id.002.01.241.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/241/1.jpg"/>

<s>The wind, from whatever quarter of <pb pagenum="203"/>the world it blows, drives the wing straight toward the opposite direction, in <lb/>which way the barrel turns the blow-hole towards the wind itself; the <lb/>blow-hole receives the wind, and it is guided down into the shaft by means <lb/>of the conduit or pipes.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—WOODEN BARRELS. B—HOOPS. C—BLOW-HOLES. D—PIPE. <lb/>E—TABLE. F—AXLE. G—OPENING IN THE BOTTOM OF THE BARREL. <lb/>H—WING.</s>

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<s>The drum is stationary and closed on the <lb/>sides, except for round holes of such size that the axle may turn in them; <lb/>it has two square blow-holes, of which the upper one receives the air, while <lb/>the lower one empties into the conduit through which the air is led down the <lb/>shaft. </s>

<s>The ends of the axle, which project on each side of the drum, are <lb/>supported by forked posts or hollowed beams plated with thick iron; one <lb/>end of the axle has a crank, while in the other end are fixed four rods with <lb/>thick heavy ends, so that they weight the axle, and when turned, make it </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/242.jpg" pagenum="204"/><figure id="id.002.01.242.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/242/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—DRUM. B—BOX-SHAPED CASING. C—BLOW-HOLE. D—SECOND HOLE. <lb/>E—CONDUIT. F—AXLE. G—LEVER OF AXLE. H—RODS.<pb xlink:href="002/01/243.jpg" pagenum="205"/>prone to motion as it revolves. </s>

<s>A—DRUM. B—BOX-SHAPED CASING. C—BLOW-HOLE. D—SECOND HOLE. <lb/>E—CONDUIT. F—AXLE. G—LEVER OF AXLE. H—RODS.<pb pagenum="205"/>prone to motion as it revolves. </s>

<s>And so, when the workman turns the axle <lb/>by the crank, the fans, the description of which I will give a little later, draw <lb/>in the air by the blow-hole, and force it through the other blow-hole which <lb/>leads to the conduit, and through this conduit the air penetrates into the <lb/>shaft.</s>

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<s>The kind with a <lb/>box-shaped casing is not only placed on the ground, but is also set up on timbers <lb/>like a windmill, and its axle, in place of a crank, has four sails outside, <lb/>like the sails of a windmill. </s>

<s>When these are struck by the wind they turn <lb/>the axle, and in this way its fans—which are placed within the casing—drive </s><figure id="id.002.01.243.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/243/1.jpg"/>

<s>When these are struck by the wind they turn <lb/>the axle, and in this way its fans—which are placed within the casing—drive </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—BOX-SHAPED CASING PLACED ON THE GROUND. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—ITS AXLE <lb/>WITH FANS. D—CRANK OF THE AXLE. E—RODS OF SAME. F—CASING SET ON TIMBERS. <lb/>G—SAILS WHICH THE AXLE HAS OUTSIDE THE CASING.<pb xlink:href="002/01/244.jpg" pagenum="206"/>the air through the blow-hole and the conduit into the shaft. </s>

<s>A—BOX-SHAPED CASING PLACED ON THE GROUND. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—ITS AXLE <lb/>WITH FANS. D—CRANK OF THE AXLE. E—RODS OF SAME. F—CASING SET ON TIMBERS. <lb/>G—SAILS WHICH THE AXLE HAS OUTSIDE THE CASING.<pb pagenum="206"/>the air through the blow-hole and the conduit into the shaft. </s>

<s>Although <lb/>this machine has no need of men whom it is necessary to pay to work the <lb/>crank, still when the sky is devoid of wind, as it often is, the machine does <lb/>not turn, and it is therefore less suitable than the others for ventilating a shaft.</s>

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<s>This rundle drum is turned by the toothed wheel <lb/>of a lower axle, which is itself turned by a wheel whose buckets receive the <lb/>impetus of water. </s>

<s>If the locality supplies an abundance of water this <lb/>machine is most useful, because to turn the crank does not need men <lb/>who require pay, and because it forces air without cessation through the <lb/>conduit into the shaft.</s><figure id="id.002.01.244.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/244/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—HOLLOW DRUM. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—AXLE WITH FANS. D—DRUM <lb/>WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. E—LOWER AXLE. F—ITS TOOTHED WHEEL. <lb/>G—WATER WHEEL.</s>

<s>Of the fans which are fixed on to an axle contained in a drum or box, <lb/>there are three sorts. </s>

<s>The first sort is made of thin boards of such length <lb/>and width as the height and width of the drum or box require; the second <pb xlink:href="002/01/245.jpg" pagenum="207"/>sort is made of boards of the same width, but shorter, to which are bound <lb/>long thin blades of poplar or some other flexible wood; the third sort has <lb/>boards like the last, to which are bound double and triple rows of goose <lb/>feathers. </s>

<s>The first sort is made of thin boards of such length <lb/>and width as the height and width of the drum or box require; the second <pb pagenum="207"/>sort is made of boards of the same width, but shorter, to which are bound <lb/>long thin blades of poplar or some other flexible wood; the third sort has <lb/>boards like the last, to which are bound double and triple rows of goose <lb/>feathers. </s>

<s>This last is less used than the second, which in turn is less used <lb/>than the first. </s>

<s>The boards of the fan are mortised into the quadrangular <lb/>parts of the barrel axle.</s><figure id="id.002.01.245.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/245/1.jpg"/>

<s>The boards of the fan are mortised into the quadrangular <lb/>parts of the barrel axle.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—FIRST KIND OF FAN. B—SECOND KIND OF FAN. C—THIRD KIND OF <lb/>FAN. D—QUADRANGULAR PART OF AXLE. E—ROUND PART OF SAME. <lb/>F—CRANK.</s>

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<s>In the latter case, when the bellows is opened it draws the <lb/>vapours from the conduits through its blow-hole and sucks these vapours <lb/>into itself; in the former case, when it is compressed, it drives the air through <lb/>its nozzle into the conduits or pipes. </s>

<s>They are compressed either by a man, <pb xlink:href="002/01/246.jpg" pagenum="208"/>or by a horse or by water-power; if by a man, the lower board of a large bellows is <lb/>fixed to the timbers above the conduit which projects out of the shaft, and so <lb/>placed that when the blast is blown through the conduit, its nozzle is <lb/>set in the conduit. </s>

<s>They are compressed either by a man, <pb pagenum="208"/>or by a horse or by water-power; if by a man, the lower board of a large bellows is <lb/>fixed to the timbers above the conduit which projects out of the shaft, and so <lb/>placed that when the blast is blown through the conduit, its nozzle is <lb/>set in the conduit. </s>

<s>When it is desired to suck out heavy or pestilential <lb/>vapours, the blow-hole of the bellows is fitted all round the mouth of the <lb/>conduit. </s>

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<s>If the <lb/>nozzle of the bellows is enclosed in the conduit it draws pure air into itself, <lb/>but if its blow-hole is fitted all round the mouth of the conduit it exhausts <lb/>the heavy and pestilential vapours out of the conduit and thus from the <lb/>shaft, even if it is one hundred and twenty feet deep. </s>

<s>A stone placed on the <lb/>upper board of the bellows depresses it and then the flap of the blow-hole is </s><figure id="id.002.01.246.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/246/1.jpg"/>

<s>A stone placed on the <lb/>upper board of the bellows depresses it and then the flap of the blow-hole is </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—SMALLER PART OF SHAFT. B—SQUARE CONDUIT. C—BELLOWS. D—LARGER PART <lb/>OF SHAFT.<pb xlink:href="002/01/247.jpg" pagenum="209"/>closed. </s>

<s>A—SMALLER PART OF SHAFT. B—SQUARE CONDUIT. C—BELLOWS. D—LARGER PART <lb/>OF SHAFT.<pb pagenum="209"/>closed. </s>

<s>The bellows, by the first method, blows fresh air into the conduit <lb/>through its nozzle, and by the second method blows out through the nozzle <lb/>the heavy and pestilential vapours which have been collected. </s>

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<s>Close by the drains of the tunnel <lb/>through which the water flows away, wooden pipes should be placed and <lb/>joined tightly together in such a manner that they can hold the air; these <lb/>should reach from the mouth of the tunnel to its furthest end. </s>

<s>At the mouth <lb/>of the tunnel the bellows should be so placed that through its nozzle it can <lb/>blow its accumulated blasts into the pipes or the conduit; since one blast </s><figure id="id.002.01.247.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/247/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—TUNNEL. B—PIPE. C—NOZZLE OF DOUBLE BELLOWS.<pb xlink:href="002/01/248.jpg" pagenum="210"/>always drives forward another, they penetrate into the tunnel and change <lb/>the air, whereby the miners are enabled to continue their work.</s>

<s>A—TUNNEL. B—PIPE. C—NOZZLE OF DOUBLE BELLOWS.<pb pagenum="210"/>always drives forward another, they penetrate into the tunnel and change <lb/>the air, whereby the miners are enabled to continue their work.</s>

<s>If heavy vapours need to be drawn off from the tunnels, generally three <lb/>double or triple bellows, without nozzles and closed in the forepart, are placed <lb/>upon benches. </s>

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<s>Here, also, the nozzles of <lb/>the bellows placed in the conduits blow a blast into the shaft or tunnel.</s>

<s>In the same way that this last machine can refresh the heavy air of a <lb/>shaft or tunnel, so also could the old system of ventilating by the constant <lb/>shaking of linen cloths, which Pliny<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> has explained; the air not only grows </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/249.jpg" pagenum="211"/><figure id="id.002.01.249.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/249/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—MACHINE FIRST DESCRIBED. B—THIS WORKMAN, TREADING WITH HIS FEET, IS COM<lb/>PRESSING THE BELLOWS. C—BELLOWS WITHOUT NOZZLES. D—HOLE BY WHICH HEAVY <lb/>VAPOURS OR BLASTS ARE BLOWN OUT. E—CONDUITS. F—TUNNEL. G—SECOND <lb/>MACHINE DESCRIBED. H—WOODEN WHEEL. I—ITS STEPS. K—BARS. L—HOLE IN <lb/>SAME WHEEL. M—POLE. N—THIRD MACHINE DESCRIBED. O—UPRIGHT AXLE. <lb/>P—ITS TOOTHED DRUM. Q—HORIZONTAL AXLE. R—ITS DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/250.jpg" pagenum="212"/><figure id="id.002.01.250.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/250/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—TUNNEL. B—LINEN CLOTH.<lb/>heavier with the depth of a shaft, of which fact he has made mention, but <lb/>also with the length of a tunnel.</s>

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<s>In these three <lb/>ways miners descend into the shafts. </s>

<s>A fourth way may be mentioned <lb/>which is employed when men and horses go down to the underground </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/251.jpg" pagenum="213"/><figure id="id.002.01.251.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/251/1.jpg"/>

<s>A fourth way may be mentioned <lb/>which is employed when men and horses go down to the underground </s><pb pagenum="213"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—DESCENDING INTO THE SHAFT BY LADDERS. B—BY SITTING ON A STICK. C—BY <lb/>SITTING ON THE DIRT. D—DESCENDING BY STEPS CUT IN THE ROCK.<pb xlink:href="002/01/252.jpg" pagenum="214"/>machines and come up again, that is by inclined shafts which are twisted like <lb/>a screw and have steps cut in the rock, as I have already described.</s>

<s>A—DESCENDING INTO THE SHAFT BY LADDERS. B—BY SITTING ON A STICK. C—BY <lb/>SITTING ON THE DIRT. D—DESCENDING BY STEPS CUT IN THE ROCK.<pb pagenum="214"/>machines and come up again, that is by inclined shafts which are twisted like <lb/>a screw and have steps cut in the rock, as I have already described.</s>

<s>It remains for me to speak of the ailments and accidents of miners, and of <lb/>the methods by which they can guard against these, for we should always <lb/>devote more care to maintaining our health, that we may freely perform our <lb/>bodily functions, than to making profits. </s>

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<s>Further, there is a certain kind of <emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>which eats away the feet of the workmen when they have become wet, and <lb/>similarly their hands, and injures their lungs and eyes. </s>

<s>Therefore, for their <pb xlink:href="002/01/253.jpg" pagenum="215"/>digging they should make for themselves not only boots of rawhide, but gloves <lb/>long enough to reach to the elbow, and they should fasten loose veils over their <lb/>faces; the dust will then neither be drawn through these into their wind<lb/>pipes and lungs, nor will it fly into their eyes. </s>

<s>Therefore, for their <pb pagenum="215"/>digging they should make for themselves not only boots of rawhide, but gloves <lb/>long enough to reach to the elbow, and they should fasten loose veils over their <lb/>faces; the dust will then neither be drawn through these into their wind<lb/>pipes and lungs, nor will it fly into their eyes. </s>

<s>Not dissimilarly, among the <lb/>Romans<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> the makers of vermilion took precautions against breathing its fatal <lb/>dust.</s>

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<s>At such times, no one should descend into the mine or into the <lb/>neighbouring mines, or if he is in them he should come out quickly. </s>

<s>Prudent <lb/>and skilled miners burn the piles of wood on Friday, towards evening, and <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/254.jpg" pagenum="216"/>they do not descend into the shafts nor enter the tunnels again before Monday, <lb/>and in the meantime the poisonous fumes pass away.</s>

<s>Prudent <lb/>and skilled miners burn the piles of wood on Friday, towards evening, and <lb/><pb pagenum="216"/>they do not descend into the shafts nor enter the tunnels again before Monday, <lb/>and in the meantime the poisonous fumes pass away.</s>

<s>There are also times when a reckoning has to be made with Orcus,<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>for some metalliferous localities, though such are rare, spontaneously <lb/>produce poison and exhale pestilential vapour, as is also the case with some <lb/>openings in the ore, though these more often contain the noxious fumes. <lb/></s>

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<s>The venomous ant which exists in Sardinia is not found in our mines. <lb/></s>

<s>This animal is, as Solinus<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> writes, very small and like a spider in shape; it <lb/>is called <emph type="italics"/>solífuga,<emph.end type="italics"/> because it shuns (<emph type="italics"/>fugít<emph.end type="italics"/>) the light (<emph type="italics"/>solem<emph.end type="italics"/>). It is very common <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/255.jpg" pagenum="217"/>in silver mines; it creeps unobserved and brings destruction upon those <lb/>who imprudently sit on it. </s>

<s>This animal is, as Solinus<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> writes, very small and like a spider in shape; it <lb/>is called <emph type="italics"/>solífuga,<emph.end type="italics"/> because it shuns (<emph type="italics"/>fugít<emph.end type="italics"/>) the light (<emph type="italics"/>solem<emph.end type="italics"/>). It is very common <lb/><pb pagenum="217"/>in silver mines; it creeps unobserved and brings destruction upon those <lb/>who imprudently sit on it. </s>

<s>But, as the same writer tells us, springs of warm <lb/>and salubrious waters gush out in certain places, which neutralise the venom <lb/>inserted by the ants.</s>

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<s>The <lb/>fourth cause is the poison produced in particular places, if it is not in our <lb/>power either completely to remove it or to moderate its effects. </s>

<s>This is the <lb/>reason why the caverns in the Plain known as Laurentius<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/> used not to be <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/256.jpg" pagenum="218"/>worked, though they were not deficient in silver. </s>

<s>This is the <lb/>reason why the caverns in the Plain known as Laurentius<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/> used not to be <lb/><pb pagenum="218"/>worked, though they were not deficient in silver. </s>

<s>The fifth cause are the <lb/>fierce and murderous demons, for if they cannot be expelled, no one escapes <lb/>from them. </s>

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<s>Therefore, <lb/>to prevent future generations from being led to act in such a way, it is <lb/>advisable to set down in writing the reason why the digging of each shaft or <lb/>tunnel has been abandoned, just as it is agreed was once done at Freiberg, <lb/>when the shafts were deserted on account of the great inrush of water.</s>

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<s>Further, a test of this kind shows whether coins are good or are <lb/>debased; and readily detects silver, if the coiners have mixed more than is <lb/>lawful with the gold; or copper, if the coiners have alloyed with the gold or <lb/>silver more of it than is allowable. </s>

<s>I will explain all these methods with the <lb/>utmost care that I can.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/258.jpg" pagenum="220"/>

<s>I will explain all these methods with the <lb/>utmost care that I can.</s><pb pagenum="220"/>

<s>The method of assaying ore used by mining people, differs from <lb/>smelting only by the small amount of material used. </s>

<s>Inasmuch as, by <lb/>smelting a small quantity, they learn whether the smelting of a large <pb xlink:href="002/01/259.jpg" pagenum="221"/>quantity will compensate them for their expenditure; hence, if they are not <lb/>particular to employ assays, they may, as I have already said, sometimes smelt <lb/>the metal from the ore with a loss or sometimes without any profit; for they <pb xlink:href="002/01/260.jpg" pagenum="222"/>can assay the ore at a very small expense, and smelt it only at a great <lb/>expense. </s>

<s>Inasmuch as, by <lb/>smelting a small quantity, they learn whether the smelting of a large <pb pagenum="221"/>quantity will compensate them for their expenditure; hence, if they are not <lb/>particular to employ assays, they may, as I have already said, sometimes smelt <lb/>the metal from the ore with a loss or sometimes without any profit; for they <pb pagenum="222"/>can assay the ore at a very small expense, and smelt it only at a great <lb/>expense. </s>

<s>Both processes, however, are carried out in the same way, for just <lb/>as we assay ore in a little furnace, so do we smelt it in the large furnace. </s>

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<s>Moreover, in the crucible <lb/>when metals are tested, be they gold, silver, copper, or lead, they are mixed in <lb/>precisely the same way as they are mixed in the blast furnace when they <lb/>are smelted. </s>

<s>Further, those who assay ores with fire, either pour out the <lb/>metal in a liquid state, or, when it has cooled, break the crucible and clean <pb xlink:href="002/01/261.jpg" pagenum="223"/>the metal from slag; and in the same way the smelter, as soon as the metal <lb/>flows from the furnace into the forehearth, pours in cold water and takes the <lb/>slag from the metal with a hooked bar. </s>

<s>Further, those who assay ores with fire, either pour out the <lb/>metal in a liquid state, or, when it has cooled, break the crucible and clean <pb pagenum="223"/>the metal from slag; and in the same way the smelter, as soon as the metal <lb/>flows from the furnace into the forehearth, pours in cold water and takes the <lb/>slag from the metal with a hooked bar. </s>

<s>Finally, in the same way that gold <lb/>and silver are separated from lead in a cupel, so also are they separated in <lb/>the cupellation furnace.</s>

<s>It is necessary that the assayer who is testing ore or metals should be <lb/>prepared and instructed in all things necessary in assaying, and that he <lb/>should close the doors of the room in which the assay furnace stands, lest </s><figure id="id.002.01.261.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/261/1.jpg"/>

<s>ROUND ASSAY FURNACE.</s><figure id="id.002.01.261.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/261/2.jpg"/>

<s>ROUND ASSAY FURNACE.</s><figure></figure>

<s>RECTANGULAR ASSAY FURNACE.<pb xlink:href="002/01/262.jpg" pagenum="224"/>anyone coming at an inopportune moment might disturb his thoughts when <lb/>they are intent on the work. </s>

<s>RECTANGULAR ASSAY FURNACE.<pb pagenum="224"/>anyone coming at an inopportune moment might disturb his thoughts when <lb/>they are intent on the work. </s>

<s>It is also necessary for him to place his balances <lb/>in a case, so that when he weighs the little buttons of metal the scales may <lb/>not be agitated by a draught of air, for that is a hindrance to his work.</s>

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<s>The brick one is a cubit high, <lb/>a foot wide on the inside, and one foot two digits long; at a point five digits <lb/>above the hearth—which is usually the thickness of an unbaked<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> brick— <lb/>an iron plate is laid, and smeared over with lute on the upper side to prevent <lb/>it from being injured by the fire; in front of the furnace above the plate is a <lb/>mouth a palm high, five digits wide, and rounded at the top. </s>

<s>The iron plate </s><figure id="id.002.01.262.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/262/1.jpg"/>

<s>The iron plate </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—OPENINGS IN THE PLATE. B—PART OF PLATE WHICH PROJECTS BEYOND THE FURNACE.<lb/>has three openings which are one digit wide and three digits long, one is at <lb/>each side and the third at the back; through them sometimes the ash falls <lb/>from the burning charcoal, and sometimes the draught blows through the <lb/>chamber which is below the iron plate, and stimulates the fire. </s>

<s>For this <lb/>reason this furnace when used by metallurgists is named from assaying, but <lb/>when used by the alchemists it is named from the wind<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>The part of the <lb/>iron plate which projects from the furnace is generally three-quarters of a <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/263.jpg" pagenum="225"/>palm long and a palm wide; small pieces of charcoal, after being laid thereon, <lb/>can be placed quickly in the furnace through its mouth with a pair of tongs, <lb/>or again, if necessary, can be taken out of the furnace and laid there.</s>

<s>The part of the <lb/>iron plate which projects from the furnace is generally three-quarters of a <lb/><pb pagenum="225"/>palm long and a palm wide; small pieces of charcoal, after being laid thereon, <lb/>can be placed quickly in the furnace through its mouth with a pair of tongs, <lb/>or again, if necessary, can be taken out of the furnace and laid there.</s>

<s>The iron assay furnace is made of four iron bars a foot and a half high, <lb/>which at the bottom are bent outward and broadened a short distance to enable <lb/>them to stand more firmly; the front part of the furnace is made from two <lb/>of these bars, and the back part from two of them; to these bars on both <lb/>sides are joined and welded three iron cross-bars, the first at a height of a palm <lb/>from the bottom, the second at a height of a foot, and the third at the top. <lb/></s>

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<s>Both tiles <lb/>are bound on the outer edge with iron wire, pressed into them, so that they <lb/>will be less easily broken; and the tiles, not unlike the iron bed-plate, have <lb/>three openings three digits long and a digit wide, in order that when the upper <lb/>one on account of the heat of the fire or for some other reason has become <lb/>damaged, the lower one may be exchanged and take its place. </s>

<s>Through these <pb xlink:href="002/01/264.jpg" pagenum="226"/>holes, the ashes from the burning charcoal, as I have stated, fall down, and <lb/>air blows into the furnace after passing through the openings in the walls of <lb/>the chamber. </s>

<s>Through these <pb pagenum="226"/>holes, the ashes from the burning charcoal, as I have stated, fall down, and <lb/>air blows into the furnace after passing through the openings in the walls of <lb/>the chamber. </s>

<s>The furnace is rectangular, and inside at the lower part it is <lb/>three palms and one digit wide and three palms and as many digits long. </s>

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<s>The bellows, without its head, is <lb/>three feet long, and at the back is one foot and one palm wide and <lb/>somewhat rounded, and it is three palms wide at the head; the head itself <lb/>is three palms long and two palms and a digit wide at the part where it joins <lb/>the boards, then it gradually becomes narrower. </s>

<s>The nozzle, of which there <lb/>is only one, is one foot and two digits long; this nozzle, and one-half of the <lb/>head in which the nozzle is fixed, are placed in an opening of the wall, this <lb/>being one foot and one palm thick; it reaches only to the iron hoop on the <pb xlink:href="002/01/265.jpg" pagenum="227"/>hearth, for it does not project beyond the wall. </s>

<s>The nozzle, of which there <lb/>is only one, is one foot and two digits long; this nozzle, and one-half of the <lb/>head in which the nozzle is fixed, are placed in an opening of the wall, this <lb/>being one foot and one palm thick; it reaches only to the iron hoop on the <pb pagenum="227"/>hearth, for it does not project beyond the wall. </s>

<s>The hide of the bellows is <lb/>fixed to the bellows-boards with its own peculiar kind of iron nails. </s>

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<s>And so when <lb/>the workman pulls down the lever, the lower part of the bellows is raised and <lb/>drives the wind into the nozzle; then the wind, penetrating through the hole <lb/>in the middle bellows-board, which is called the air-hole, lifts up the upper <lb/>part of the bellows, upon whose upper board is a piece of lead, heavy enough <lb/>to press down that part of the bellows again, and this being pressed down <lb/>blows a blast through the nozzle. </s>

<s>This is the principle of the double bellows, <lb/>which is peculiar to the iron hoop where are placed the triangular crucibles in <lb/>which copper ore is smelted and copper is melted.</s><figure id="id.002.01.265.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/265/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—IRON HOOP. B—DOUBLE BELLOWS. C—ITS NOZZLE. D—LEVER.</s>

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<s>The muffle is made of clay, in the shape <lb/>of an inverted gutter tile; it covers the scorifiers, lest coal dust fall into <lb/>them and interfere with the assay. </s>

<s>It is a palm and a half broad, and the <lb/>height, which corresponds with the mouth of the furnace, is generally a palm, <pb xlink:href="002/01/266.jpg" pagenum="228"/>and it is nearly as long as the furnace; only at the front end does it touch <lb/>the mouth of the furnace, everywhere else on the sides and at the back <lb/>there is a space of three digits, to allow the charcoal to lie in the open space <lb/>between it and the furnace. </s>

<s>It is a palm and a half broad, and the <lb/>height, which corresponds with the mouth of the furnace, is generally a palm, <pb pagenum="228"/>and it is nearly as long as the furnace; only at the front end does it touch <lb/>the mouth of the furnace, everywhere else on the sides and at the back <lb/>there is a space of three digits, to allow the charcoal to lie in the open space <lb/>between it and the furnace. </s>

<s>The muffle is as thick as a fairly thick earthen <lb/>jar; its upper part is entire; the back has two little windows, and each side <lb/>has two or three or even four, through which the heat passes into the scorifiers <lb/>and melts the ore. </s>

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<s>Moreover, in the back below the <lb/>little windows, or small holes, there are cut away three semi-circular notches <lb/>half a digit high, and on each side there are four. </s>

<s>The back of the muffle <lb/>is generally a little lower than the front.</s><figure id="id.002.01.266.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/266/1.jpg"/>

<s>The back of the muffle <lb/>is generally a little lower than the front.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—BROAD LITTLE WINDOWS OF MUFFLE. B—NARROW ONES. C—OPENINGS IN THE <lb/>BACK THEREOF.</s>

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<s>Others make <lb/>them likewise out of any kind of ashes which have been previously <lb/>leached; of this kind are the ashes into which warm water has been infused <lb/>for the purpose of making lye. </s>

<s>These ashes, after being dried in the sun or <lb/>a furnace, are sifted in a hair sieve; and although warm water washes away the </s><pb xlink:href="002/01/267.jpg" pagenum="229"/><figure id="id.002.01.267.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/267/1.jpg"/>

<s>These ashes, after being dried in the sun or <lb/>a furnace, are sifted in a hair sieve; and although warm water washes away the </s><pb pagenum="229"/><figure></figure>

<s>A—SCORIFIER. B—TRIANGULAR CRUCIBLE. C—CUPEL.<lb/>fat from the ashes, still the cupels which are made from such ashes are not <lb/>very good because they often contain charcoal dust, sand, and pebbles. <lb/></s>

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<s>When all the ashes have settled in this second <lb/>vessel, which will be shown if the water has become clear and does not taste <lb/>of the flavour of lye, the water should be thrown away, and the ashes <lb/>which have settled in the vessel should be dried in the sun or in a furnace. <lb/></s>

<s>This material is suitable for the cupels, especially if it is the ash of beech <lb/>wood or other wood which has a small annual growth; those ashes made <lb/>from twigs and limbs of vines, which have rapid annual growth, are not so <pb xlink:href="002/01/268.jpg" pagenum="230"/>good, for the cupels made from them, since they are not sufficiently dry, <lb/>frequently crack and break in the fire and absorb the metals. </s>

<s>This material is suitable for the cupels, especially if it is the ash of beech <lb/>wood or other wood which has a small annual growth; those ashes made <lb/>from twigs and limbs of vines, which have rapid annual growth, are not so <pb pagenum="230"/>good, for the cupels made from them, since they are not sufficiently dry, <lb/>frequently crack and break in the fire and absorb the metals. </s>

<s>If ashes of <lb/>beech or similar wood are not to be had, the assayer makes little balls of such <lb/>ashes as he can get, after they have been cleared of impurities in the manner <lb/>before described, and puts them in a baker's or potter's oven to burn, and from <lb/>these the cupels are made, because the fire consumes whatever fat or damp <lb/>there may be. </s>

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<s>With this clay they mix the dust of old <lb/>broken crucibles, or of burnt and worn bricks; then they knead with a <lb/>pestle the clay thus mixed with dust, and then dry it. </s>

<s>As to these crucibles, <pb xlink:href="002/01/269.jpg" pagenum="231"/>the older they are, the dryer and better they are. </s>

<s>As to these crucibles, <pb pagenum="231"/>the older they are, the dryer and better they are. </s>

<s>The moulds in which the <lb/>cupels are moulded are of two kinds, that is, a smaller size and a larger size. <lb/></s>

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<s>The pestles also are of two kinds, smaller and larger, each <lb/>likewise of brass, and from the lower end of them there projects a round <lb/>knob, and this alone is pressed into the mould and makes the hollow part of <lb/>the cupel. </s>

<s>The part which is next to the knob corresponds to the upper <lb/>part of the mould.</s><figure id="id.002.01.269.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/269/1.jpg"/>

<s>The part which is next to the knob corresponds to the upper <lb/>part of the mould.</s><figure></figure>

<s>A—LITTLE MOULD. B—INVERTED MOULD. C—PESTLE. D—ITS KNOB. E—SECOND <lb/>PESTLE.</s>

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<s>But ore which is rich in <lb/>metal is neither burned nor crushed nor washed, but is roasted, lest that <lb/>method of preparation should lose some of the metal. </s>

<s>When the fires have <pb xlink:href="002/01/270.jpg" pagenum="232"/>been kindled, this kind of ore is roasted in an enclosed pot, which is stopped <lb/>up with lute. </s>

<s>When the fires have <pb pagenum="232"/>been kindled, this kind of ore is roasted in an enclosed pot, which is stopped <lb/>up with lute. </s>

<s>A less valuable ore is even burned on a hearth, being placed <lb/>upon the charcoal; for we do not make a great expenditure upon metals, if <lb/>they are not worth it. </s>

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<s>For when they have been mixed with the ore <lb/>and are melted in either the assay or the smelting furnace, some of them, <lb/>because they melt easily, to some extent melt the ore; others, because they <lb/>either make the ore very hot or penetrate into it, greatly assist the fire in <lb/>separating the impurities from the metals, and they also mix the fused part <lb/>with the lead, or they partly protect from the fire the ore whose metal contents <lb/>would be either consumed in the fire, or carried up with the fumes and fly out <lb/>of the furnace; some fluxes absorb the metals. </s>

<s>To the first order be<lb/>longs lead, whether it be reduced to little granules or resolved into ash by <lb/>fire, or red-lead<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>, or ochre made from lead<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>, or litharge, or hearth-lead, or <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/271.jpg" pagenum="233"/>galena; also copper, the same either roasted or in leaves or filings<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>; also the <lb/>slags of gold, silver, copper, and lead; also soda<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>, its slags, saltpetre, burned <lb/>alum, vitriol, <emph type="italics"/>sal tostus,<emph.end type="italics"/> and melted salt<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/>; stones which easily melt <lb/>in hot furnaces, the sand which is made from them<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>; soft <emph type="italics"/>tophus<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>, <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/272.jpg" pagenum="234"/>and a certain white schist<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>To the first order be<lb/>longs lead, whether it be reduced to little granules or resolved into ash by <lb/>fire, or red-lead<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>, or ochre made from lead<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>, or litharge, or hearth-lead, or <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="233"/>galena; also copper, the same either roasted or in leaves or filings<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>; also the <lb/>slags of gold, silver, copper, and lead; also soda<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>, its slags, saltpetre, burned <lb/>alum, vitriol, <emph type="italics"/>sal tostus,<emph.end type="italics"/> and melted salt<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/>; stones which easily melt <lb/>in hot furnaces, the sand which is made from them<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>; soft <emph type="italics"/>tophus<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>, <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="234"/>and a certain white schist<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>But lead, its ashes, red-lead, ochre, and <lb/>litharge, are more efficacious for ores which melt easily; hearth-lead for <lb/>those which melt with difficulty; and galena for those which melt with <lb/>greater difficulty. </s>

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<s>And so with regard to fluxes, it is manifest that some are natural, others <lb/>fall in the category of slags, and the rest are purged from slag. </s>

<s>When we <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/273.jpg" pagenum="235"/>assay ores, we can without great expense add to them a small portion of any <lb/>sort of flux, but when we smelt them we cannot add a large portion without <lb/>great expense. </s>

<s>When we <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="235"/>assay ores, we can without great expense add to them a small portion of any <lb/>sort of flux, but when we smelt them we cannot add a large portion without <lb/>great expense. </s>

<s>We must, therefore, consider how great the cost is, to avoid <lb/>incurring a greater expense on smelting an ore than the profit we make out of <lb/>the metals which it yields.</s>

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<s>If the ore contains any <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> then iron slag is added to it; if pyrites, <lb/>then are added cakes melted from a cupriferous stone and sand made from <lb/>stones which easily melt. </s>

<s>If the ore contains iron, then pyrites and sulphur <lb/>are added; for just as iron slag is the flux for an ore mixed with sulphur, so <lb/>on the contrary, to a gold or silver ore containing iron, from which they are <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/274.jpg" pagenum="236"/>not easily separated, is added sulphur and sand made from stones which <lb/>easily melt.</s>

<s>If the ore contains iron, then pyrites and sulphur <lb/>are added; for just as iron slag is the flux for an ore mixed with sulphur, so <lb/>on the contrary, to a gold or silver ore containing iron, from which they are <lb/><pb pagenum="236"/>not easily separated, is added sulphur and sand made from stones which <lb/>easily melt.</s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Sal artíficíosus<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/> suitable for use in assaying ore is made in many ways. <lb/></s>

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<s>Of these, one is made <lb/>from stones of the third order, which easily melt when thrown into hot <lb/>furnaces. </s>

<s>They are crushed into pure white powder, and with half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/275.jpg" pagenum="237"/>of this powder there are mixed two <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of yellow litharge, likewise crushed. <lb/></s>

<s>They are crushed into pure white powder, and with half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="237"/>of this powder there are mixed two <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of yellow litharge, likewise crushed. <lb/></s>

<s>This mixture is put into a scorifier large enough to hold it, and placed under <lb/>the muffle of a hot furnace; when the charge flows like water, which occurs <lb/>after half an hour, it is taken out of the furnace and poured on to a stone, <lb/>and when it has hardened it has the appearance of glass, and this is likewise <lb/>crushed. </s>

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<s>A <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of the <lb/>dried lees (<emph type="italics"/>of what?<emph.end type="italics"/>) are placed alternately in a crucible and heated to the <lb/>point at which they form a button, which is similarly reduced to powder. <lb/></s>

<s>A <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of this powder and one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the ashes of lead, as well as a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>powder made out of the saltpetre and orpiment, are mixed together and a <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/276.jpg" pagenum="238"/>powder is made from them, one part of which added to two parts of ore <lb/>liquefies it and cleanses it of dross. </s>

<s>A <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of this powder and one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the ashes of lead, as well as a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>powder made out of the saltpetre and orpiment, are mixed together and a <lb/><pb pagenum="238"/>powder is made from them, one part of which added to two parts of ore <lb/>liquefies it and cleanses it of dross. </s>

<s>But the most powerful flux is one which <lb/>has two <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur and as much glass-galls, and half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of each of <lb/>the following,—<emph type="italics"/>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> salt obtained from boiled urine, melted common salt, <lb/>prepared saltpetre, litharge, vitriol, argol, salt obtained from ashes of musk ivy, <lb/>dried lees of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> by which gold-workers separate gold from silver, <lb/>alum reduced by fire to powder, and one <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of camphor<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/> combined with <lb/>sulphur and ground into powder. </s>

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<s>Or else take one portion of ore, one <lb/>portion of lead granules, half a portion of salt, one-fourth of a portion of argol, <lb/>and the same quantity of lees of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which separates gold from silver. <lb/></s>

<s>Or else take equal portions of prepared ore and a powder in which there <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/277.jpg" pagenum="239"/>are equal portions of very minute lead granules, melted salt, <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>iron slag Or else take equal portions of gold ore, vitriol, argol, and of salt. <lb/></s>

<s>Or else take equal portions of prepared ore and a powder in which there <lb/><pb pagenum="239"/>are equal portions of very minute lead granules, melted salt, <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>iron slag Or else take equal portions of gold ore, vitriol, argol, and of salt. <lb/></s>

<s>So much for the fluxes.</s>

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<s>They first of all place prepared ore in the <lb/>scorifiers and heat it, and afterward they add the lead. </s>

<s>Of this method I <lb/>cannot approve, for in this way the ore frequently becomes cemented, and <lb/>for this reason it does not stir easily afterward, and is very slow in mixing <lb/>with the lead.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/278.jpg" pagenum="240"/>

<s>If the whole space of the furnace covered by the muffle is not filled with <lb/>scorifiers, cupels are put in the empty space, in order that they may become <lb/>warmed in the meantime. </s>

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<s>Although the cupels are usually dried in one hour, yet smaller <lb/>ones are done more quickly, and the larger ones more slowly. </s>

<s>Unless the <lb/>cupels are heated before the metal mixed with lead is placed in them, they </s><figure id="id.002.01.278.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/278/1.jpg"/>

<s>Unless the <lb/>cupels are heated before the metal mixed with lead is placed in them, they </s><figure></figure>

<s>A—CLAWS OF THE TONGS. B—IRON, GIVING FORM OF AN EGG. C—OPENING.<lb/>frequently break, and the lead always sputters and sometimes leaps out of them; <lb/>if the cupel is broken or the lead leaps out of it, it is necessary to assay <lb/>another portion of ore; but if the lead only sputters, then the cupels should <lb/>be covered with broad thin pieces of glowing charcoal, and when the lead <lb/>strikes these, it falls back again, and thus the mixture is slowly exhaled. <lb/></s>

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<s>Then take care that the heat is sufficient and equal; if the heat has not <lb/>passed all round the charge, as it should when everything is done rightly, <lb/>but causes it to have a lengthened shape, so that it appears to have a tail, <lb/>this is a sign that the heat is deficient where the tail lies. </s>

<s>Then in order <lb/>that the cupel may be equally heated by the fire, turn it around with a small <lb/>iron hook, whose handle is likewise made of iron and is a foot and a half long.</s><figure id="id.002.01.278.2.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/278/2.jpg"/>

<s>SMALL IRON HOOK.</s>

<s>Next, if the mixture has not enough lead, add as much of it as is required <lb/>with the iron tongs, or with the brass ladle to which is fastened a very long <lb/>handle. </s>

<s>In order that the charge may not be cooled, warm the lead beforehand. <pb xlink:href="002/01/279.jpg" pagenum="241"/>But it is better at first to add as much lead as is required to the ore which <lb/>needs melting, rather than afterward when the melting has been half finished, <lb/>that the whole quantity may not vanish in fumes, but part of it remain <lb/>fast. </s>

<s>In order that the charge may not be cooled, warm the lead beforehand. <pb pagenum="241"/>But it is better at first to add as much lead as is required to the ore which <lb/>needs melting, rather than afterward when the melting has been half finished, <lb/>that the whole quantity may not vanish in fumes, but part of it remain <lb/>fast. </s>

<s>When the heat of the fire has nearly consumed the lead, then is the <lb/>time when the gold and silver gleam in their varied colours, and when all the <lb/>lead has been consumed the gold or silver settles in the cupel. </s>

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<s>Finally, it is of advantage to make two or <lb/>three assays of the same ore at the same time, in order that if by chance <lb/>one is not successful, the second, or in any event the third, may be certain.</s>

<s>While the assayer is assaying the ore, in order to prevent the great heat <lb/>of the fire from injuring his eyes, it will be useful for him always to have <lb/>ready a thin wooden tablet, two palms wide, with a handle by which it may <lb/>be held, and with a slit down the middle in order that he may look through <lb/>it as through a crack, since it is necessary for him to look frequently within <lb/>and carefully to consider everything.</s><figure id="id.002.01.279.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/279/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—HANDLE OF TABLET. B—ITS CRACK.</s>

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<s>First of all, glowing charcoal is put into <lb/>the iron hoop, then is put in the triangular crucible, which contains the ore <lb/>together with those things which can liquefy it and purge it of its dross; <lb/>then the fire is blown with the double bellows, and the ore is heated until <lb/>the button settles in the bottom of the crucible. </s>

<s>We have explained that <lb/>there are two methods of assaying ore,—one, by which the lead is mixed <pb xlink:href="002/01/280.jpg" pagenum="242"/>with ore in the scorifier and afterward again separated from it in the cupel; <lb/>the other, by which it is first melted in the triangular earthen crucible and <lb/>afterward mixed with lead in the scorifier, and later separated from it in the <lb/>cupel. </s>

<s>We have explained that <lb/>there are two methods of assaying ore,—one, by which the lead is mixed <pb pagenum="242"/>with ore in the scorifier and afterward again separated from it in the cupel; <lb/>the other, by which it is first melted in the triangular earthen crucible and <lb/>afterward mixed with lead in the scorifier, and later separated from it in the <lb/>cupel. </s>

<s>Now let us consider which is more suitable for each ore, or, if neither <lb/>is suitable, by what other method in one way or another we can assay it.</s>

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<s>If the gold ore is seen not to be easily melted in the fire, roast it and <lb/>extinguish it with brine. </s>

<s>Do this again and again, for the more often you <lb/>roast it and extinguish it, the more easily the ore can be crushed fine, and the <lb/>more quickly does it melt in the fire and give up whatever dross it possesses. <pb xlink:href="002/01/281.jpg" pagenum="243"/>Mix one part of this ore, when it has been roasted, crushed, and washed, with <lb/>three parts of some powder compound which melts ore, and six parts of lead. <lb/></s>

<s>Do this again and again, for the more often you <lb/>roast it and extinguish it, the more easily the ore can be crushed fine, and the <lb/>more quickly does it melt in the fire and give up whatever dross it possesses. <pb pagenum="243"/>Mix one part of this ore, when it has been roasted, crushed, and washed, with <lb/>three parts of some powder compound which melts ore, and six parts of lead. <lb/></s>

<s>Put the charge into the triangular crucible, place it in the iron hoop to which <lb/>the double bellows reaches, and heat first in a slow fire, and afterward <lb/>gradually in a fiercer fire, till it melts and flows like water. </s>

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<s>Afterward cold water is poured into the same dish, <lb/>and soon the quicksilver, which has absorbed all the gold, runs together <lb/>into a separate place away from the rest of the concentrates made by <lb/>washing. </s>

<s>The quicksilver is afterward separated from the gold by means <lb/>of a pot covered with soft leather, or with canvas made of woven <lb/>threads of cotton; the amalgam is poured into the middle of the cloth or <pb xlink:href="002/01/282.jpg" pagenum="244"/>leather, which sags about one hand's breadth; next, the leather is folded <lb/>over and tied with a waxed string, and the dish catches the quicksilver <lb/>which is squeezed through it. </s>

<s>The quicksilver is afterward separated from the gold by means <lb/>of a pot covered with soft leather, or with canvas made of woven <lb/>threads of cotton; the amalgam is poured into the middle of the cloth or <pb pagenum="244"/>leather, which sags about one hand's breadth; next, the leather is folded <lb/>over and tied with a waxed string, and the dish catches the quicksilver <lb/>which is squeezed through it. </s>

<s>As for the gold which remains in the leather, <lb/>it is placed in a scorifier and purified by being placed near glowing coals. </s>

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<s>We assay copper ore without lead, for if it is melted with it, the copper <lb/>usually exhales and is lost. </s>

<s>Therefore, a certain weight of such an ore <pb xlink:href="002/01/283.jpg" pagenum="245"/>is first roasted in a hot fire for about six or eight hours; next, when it has <lb/>cooled, it is crushed and washed; then the concentrates made by washing <lb/>are again roasted, crushed, washed, dried, and weighed. </s>

<s>Therefore, a certain weight of such an ore <pb pagenum="245"/>is first roasted in a hot fire for about six or eight hours; next, when it has <lb/>cooled, it is crushed and washed; then the concentrates made by washing <lb/>are again roasted, crushed, washed, dried, and weighed. </s>

<s>The portion which <lb/>it has lost whilst it is being roasted and washed is taken into account, and <lb/>these concentrates by washing represent the cake which will be melted out <lb/>of the copper ore. </s>

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<s>They then put it into another <lb/>scorifier, which they place under the muffle in a hot furnace, adding to the <lb/>mixture a little of the powder of some one of the fluxes which cause ore to <lb/>melt; when it has melted they take it out, and after it has cooled, cleanse <lb/>it of slag; lastly, they heat it in the cupel till it has exhaled all of the lead, <lb/>and only silver remains.</s>

<s>Lead ore may be assayed by this method: crush half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>pure lead-stone and the same quantity of the <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/> which they call <lb/>borax, mix them together, place them in a crucible, and put a glowing coal <pb xlink:href="002/01/284.jpg" pagenum="246"/>in the middle of it. </s>

<s>As soon as the borax crackles and the lead-stone melts, <lb/>which soon occurs, remove the coal from the crucible, and the lead will settle <lb/>to the bottom of it; weigh it out, and take account of that portion of it <lb/>which the fire has consumed. </s>

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<s>Another way is to <lb/>take a large piece of charcoal, hollow it out, and smear it with lute, that the <lb/>ore may not leap out when white hot. </s>

<s>Next, make a small hole through the <lb/>middle of it, then fill up the large opening with small charcoal, and put the <lb/>ore upon this; put fire in the small hole and blow the fire with the nozzle of <lb/>a hand bellows; place the piece of charcoal in a small crucible, smeared <lb/>with lute, in which, when the melting is finished, you will find a button <lb/>of tin.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/285.jpg" pagenum="247"/>

<s>In assaying bismuth ore, place pieces of ore in the scorifier, and put <lb/>it under the muffle in a hot furnace; as soon as they are heated, they <lb/>drip with bismuth, which runs together into a button.</s>

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<s>Once <lb/>upon a time the base metals were burned up, in order that the precious metals <lb/>should be left pure; the Ancients even discovered by such burning what <lb/>portion of gold was contained in silver, and in this way all the silver was <lb/>consumed, which was no small loss. </s>

<s>However, the famous mathematician, <lb/>Archimedes<emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/>, to gratify King Hiero, invented a method of testing the silver, <pb xlink:href="002/01/286.jpg" pagenum="248"/>which was not very rapid, and was more accurate for testing a large mass <lb/>than a small one. </s>

<s>However, the famous mathematician, <lb/>Archimedes<emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/>, to gratify King Hiero, invented a method of testing the silver, <pb pagenum="248"/>which was not very rapid, and was more accurate for testing a large mass <lb/>than a small one. </s>

<s>This I will explain in my commentaries. </s>

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<s>After <lb/>a short time the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is poured off and other is poured on; when this has <lb/>again raised six or eight small white bubbles, it is poured off and the tubes are <lb/>taken out and washed four or five times with spring water; or if they are <lb/>heated with the same water, when it is boiling, they will shine more brilliantly. <lb/></s>

<s>Then they are placed in a saucer, which is held in the hand and gradually <lb/>dried by the gentle heat of the fire; afterward the saucer is placed over glowing <lb/>charcoal and covered with a charcoal, and a moderate blast is blown upon it <lb/><lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/287.jpg" pagenum="249"/>with the mouth and then a blue flame will be emitted. </s>

<s>Then they are placed in a saucer, which is held in the hand and gradually <lb/>dried by the gentle heat of the fire; afterward the saucer is placed over glowing <lb/>charcoal and covered with a charcoal, and a moderate blast is blown upon it <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="249"/>with the mouth and then a blue flame will be emitted. </s>

<s>In the end the tubes <lb/>are weighed, and if their weights prove equal, he who has undertaken this work <lb/>has not laboured in vain. </s>

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<s>When <lb/>he has blown the bellows for about the space of time stated, he removes the <lb/>glowing charcoal with the tongs, and stirs the copper with a splinter of wood, <lb/>which he grasps with the tongs. </s>

<s>If it does not stir easily, it is a sign that the <pb xlink:href="002/01/288.jpg" pagenum="250"/>copper is not wholly liquefied; if he finds this is the case, he again places a <lb/>large piece of charcoal in the crucible, and replaces the glowing charcoal which <lb/>had been removed, and again blows the bellows for a short time. </s>

<s>If it does not stir easily, it is a sign that the <pb pagenum="250"/>copper is not wholly liquefied; if he finds this is the case, he again places a <lb/>large piece of charcoal in the crucible, and replaces the glowing charcoal which <lb/>had been removed, and again blows the bellows for a short time. </s>

<s>When all <lb/>the copper has melted he stops using the bellows, for if he were to continue <lb/>to use them, the fire would consume part of the copper, and then that which <lb/>remained would be richer than the cake from which it had been cut; this is <lb/>no small mistake. </s>

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<s>The mould has a handle, likewise made of iron, by which it is held <lb/>when the copper is poured in, after which, he plunges it into a tub of water <lb/>placed near at hand, that the copper may be cooled. </s>

<s>Then he again dries the <lb/>copper by the fire, and cuts off its point with an iron wedge; the portion <lb/>nearest the point he hammers on an anvil and makes into a leaf, which he <lb/>cuts into pieces.</s><figure id="id.002.01.288.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/288/1.jpg"/>

<s>A—IRON MOULD. B—ITS HANDLE.</s>

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<s>When the copper has been prepared by these <lb/>methods, if it is free of lead and iron, and rich in silver, to each <emph type="italics"/>centumpon<lb/>díum<emph.end type="italics"/> (lesser weights) add one and a half <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead (larger weights). If, <lb/>however, the copper contains some lead, add one <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead; if it contains <lb/>iron, add two <emph type="italics"/>unciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> First put the lead into a cupel, and after it begins <lb/>to smoke, add the copper; the fire generally consumes the copper, together <lb/>with the lead, in about one hour and a quarter. </s>

<s>When this is done, the silver <pb xlink:href="002/01/289.jpg" pagenum="251"/>will be found in the bottom of the cupel. </s>

<s>When this is done, the silver <pb pagenum="251"/>will be found in the bottom of the cupel. </s>

<s>The fire consumes both of those <lb/>metals more quickly if they are heated in that furnace which draws in air. </s>

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<s>As soon as the lead has begun to fume, put into each cupel one of <lb/>the papers in which is wrapped the sample of silver alloyed with copper, and <lb/>close the mouth of the muffle with charcoal. </s>

<s>Heat them with a gentle fire <lb/>until all the lead and copper are consumed, for a hot fire by its heat forces the <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/290.jpg" pagenum="252"/>silver, combined with a certain portion of lead, into the cupel, in which way <lb/>the assay is rendered erroneous. </s>

<s>Heat them with a gentle fire <lb/>until all the lead and copper are consumed, for a hot fire by its heat forces the <lb/><pb pagenum="252"/>silver, combined with a certain portion of lead, into the cupel, in which way <lb/>the assay is rendered erroneous. </s>

<s>Then take the beads out of the cupel and <lb/>clean them of dross. </s>

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<s>Further, when gold coins are assayed in the fire, of what use are they after<lb/>ward? </s>

<s>A touchstone must be selected which is thoroughly black and free <lb/>of sulphur, for the blacker it is and the more devoid of sulphur, the better it <pb xlink:href="002/01/291.jpg" pagenum="253"/>generally is; I have written elsewhere of its nature<emph type="sup"/>38<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>A touchstone must be selected which is thoroughly black and free <lb/>of sulphur, for the blacker it is and the more devoid of sulphur, the better it <pb pagenum="253"/>generally is; I have written elsewhere of its nature<emph type="sup"/>38<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s>

<s>First the gold is <lb/>rubbed on the touchstone, whether it contains silver or whether it is obtained <lb/>from the mines or from the smelting; silver also is rubbed in the same <lb/>way. </s>

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<s>The lesser weights correspond <lb/>proportionately to the larger weights, and both of them are used, not <lb/>only by mining people, but by coiners also. </s>

<s>The needles are made in <lb/>accordance with the lesser weights, and each set corresponds to a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which, in our own vocabulary, is called a <emph type="italics"/>mark.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is employed <lb/>by those who coin gold, is divided into twenty-four double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"/> which <lb/><pb xlink:href="002/01/292.jpg" pagenum="254"/>are now called after the Greek name <emph type="italics"/>ceratía;<emph.end type="italics"/> and each double <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/> is <lb/>divided into four <emph type="italics"/>semi-sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"/> which are called <emph type="italics"/>granas;<emph.end type="italics"/> and each <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>is divided into three units of four <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each, of which each unit is called <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>grenlín.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> If we made the needles to be each four <emph type="italics"/>síliquae,<emph.end type="italics"/> there would be <lb/>two hundred and eighty-eight in a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> but if each were made to be a <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or a double <emph type="italics"/>scripula,<emph.end type="italics"/> then there would be ninety-six in a <emph type="italics"/>bes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> By these two <lb/>methods too many needles would be made, and the majority of them, by reason <lb/>of the small difference in the proportion of the gold, would indicate nothing, <lb/>therefore it is advisable to make them each of a double <emph type="italics"/>sextula;<emph.end type="italics"/> in this way <lb/>twenty-four needles are made, of which the first is made of twenty-three <lb/><emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and one of gold. </s>

<s>The needles are made in <lb/>accordance with the lesser weights, and each set corresponds to a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which, in our own vocabulary, is called a <emph type="italics"/>mark.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is employed <lb/>by those who coin gold, is divided into twenty-four double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"/> which <lb/><pb pagenum="254"/>are now called after the Greek name <emph type="italics"/>ceratía;<emph.end type="italics"/> and each double <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/> is <lb/>divided into four <emph type="italics"/>semi-sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"/> which are called <emph type="italics"/>granas;<emph.end type="italics"/> and each <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>is divided into three units of four <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each, of which each unit is called <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>grenlín.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> If we made the needles to be each four <emph type="italics"/>síliquae,<emph.end type="italics"/> there would be <lb/>two hundred and eighty-eight in a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> but if each were made to be a <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or a double <emph type="italics"/>scripula,<emph.end type="italics"/> then there would be ninety-six in a <emph type="italics"/>bes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> By these two <lb/>methods too many needles would be made, and the majority of them, by reason <lb/>of the small difference in the proportion of the gold, would indicate nothing, <lb/>therefore it is advisable to make them each of a double <emph type="italics"/>sextula;<emph.end type="italics"/> in this way <lb/>twenty-four needles are made, of which the first is made of twenty-three <lb/><emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and one of gold. </s>

<s>Fannius is our authority that the Ancients <lb/>called the double <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/> a <emph type="italics"/>duella.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> When a bar of silver is rubbed on the <lb/>touchstone and colours it just as this needle does, it contains one <emph type="italics"/>duella<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold. <lb/></s>

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<s>The 7th needle of 17 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 7 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s>

<s>The 8th needle of 16 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 8 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/293.jpg" pagenum="255"/>

<s>The 9th needle of 15 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 9 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s>

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<s>The 23rd needle of 1 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 23 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s>

<s>The 24th needle of pure gold</s><figure id="id.002.01.293.1.jpg" xlink:href="002/01/293/1.jpg"/>

<s>The 24th needle of pure gold</s><figure></figure>

<s>By the first eleven needles, when they are rubbed on the touchstone, we <lb/>test what proportion of gold a bar of silver contains, and with the remaining <lb/>thirteen we test what proportion of silver is in a bar of gold; and also what <lb/>proportion of either may be in money.</s>

<s>Since some gold coins are composed of gold and copper, thirteen needles <lb/>of another kind are made as follows:—</s><pb xlink:href="002/01/294.jpg" pagenum="256"/>

<s>Since some gold coins are composed of gold and copper, thirteen needles <lb/>of another kind are made as follows:—</s><pb pagenum="256"/>

<s>The 1st of 12 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 12 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s>

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<s>Needles may be made in either of two ways, namely, in the ways of which <lb/>I have spoken, and in the ways of which I am now about to speak. </s>

<s>If <pb xlink:href="002/01/295.jpg" pagenum="257"/>unequal portions of silver and copper have been mixed with the gold, thirty<lb/>seven needles are made in the following way:—<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table3"></arrow.to.target></s><pb xlink:href="002/01/296.jpg" pagenum="258"/><table><table.target id="table3"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell>Gold.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Silver.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Copper.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>ulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>ulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 1st of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>9</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell></row><row><cell>The 2nd of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell></row><row><cell>The 3rd of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>7</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>5</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 4th of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 5th of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>7</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 6th of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 7th of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>7</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 8th of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 9th of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 10th of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 11th of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>6</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 12th of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 13th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>6</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 14th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 15th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 16th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 17th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 18th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 19th of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 20th of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>0</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 21st of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 22nd of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 23rd of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 24th of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 25th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 26th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 27th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 28th of</cell><cell>21</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 29th of</cell><cell>21</cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 30th of</cell><cell>21</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 31st of</cell><cell>22</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 32nd of</cell><cell>22</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 33rd of</cell><cell>22</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>8</cell><cell></cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 34th of</cell><cell>23</cell><cell></cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 35th of</cell><cell>23</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell></cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 36th of</cell><cell>23</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 37th of</cell><cell>pure gold.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row></table>

<s>If <pb pagenum="257"/>unequal portions of silver and copper have been mixed with the gold, thirty<lb/>seven needles are made in the following way:—<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table3"></arrow.to.target></s><pb pagenum="258"/><table><table.target id="table3"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell>Gold.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Silver.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Copper.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>ulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>ulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 1st of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>9</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell></row><row><cell>The 2nd of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell></row><row><cell>The 3rd of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>7</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>5</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 4th of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 5th of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>7</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 6th of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 7th of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>7</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 8th of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 9th of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 10th of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 11th of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>6</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 12th of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 13th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>6</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 14th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 15th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 16th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 17th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 18th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 19th of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 20th of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>0</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 21st of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 22nd of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 23rd of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 24th of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 25th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 26th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 27th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell&g