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<author>Agricola, Georgius</author>

<title>De re metallica</title>

<place>London</place>

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<pb/>

<s>GEORGIUS AGRICOLA</s>

<s><emph type="bold"/>DE RE METALLICA<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<s>TRANSLATED FROM THE FIRST LATIN EDITION OF 1556</s>

<s>with <lb/>Biographical Introduction, Annotations and Appendices upon <lb/>the Development of Mining Methods, Metallurgical <lb/>Processes, Geology, Mineralogy & Mining Law <lb/>from the earliest times to the 16th Century</s>

<s>BY <lb/><emph type="bold"/>HERBERT CLARK HOOVER<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<s>A. B. Stanford University, Member American Institute of Mining Engineers, <lb/>Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, Société des Ingéniéurs <lb/>Civils de France, American Institute of Civil Engineers, <lb/>Fellow Royal Geographical Society, etc., etc.</s>

<s><emph type="bold"/>LOU HENRY HOOVER<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<s>A. B. Stanford University, Member American Association for the <lb/>Advancement of Science, The National Geographical Society, <lb/>Royal Scottish Geographical Society, etc., etc.</s>

<s><emph type="bold"/><emph type="italics"/>Dover Publications, Inc.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<pb/>

<s><emph type="bold"/>TO <lb/>JOHN CASPAR BRANNER Ph.D.,<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<s><emph type="bold"/><emph type="italics"/>The inspiration of whose teaching is no less great than his contribution to science.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<s>This New 1950 Edition <lb/>of DE RE METALLICA is a complete <lb/>and unchanged reprint of the transla<lb/>tion published by The Mining Magazine, <lb/>London, in 1912. It has been made avail<lb/>able through the kind permission of Honor<lb/>able Herbert C. Hoover and Mr. Edgar <lb/>Rickard, Author and Publisher, respec<lb/>tively, of the original volume.</s>

<s><emph type="bold"/>MAX-PLANCK-INSTITUT <lb/>FÜR WISSENSCHAFTSGESCHICHTE<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<s>Bibliothek</s>

<s>PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</s>

<pb/>

<s><emph type="bold"/>TRANSLATORS' PREFACE.<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<s>There are three objectives in translation of works <lb/>of this character: to give a faithful, literal trans<lb/>lation of the author's statements; to give these <lb/>in a manner which will interest the reader; and to <lb/>preserve, so far as is possible, the style of the <lb/>original text. The task has been doubly difficult <lb/>in this work because, in using Latin, the author <lb/>availed himself of a medium which had ceased to <lb/>expand a thousand years before his subject had in <lb/>many particulars come into being; in consequence he was in difficulties <lb/>with a large number of ideas for which there were no corresponding <lb/>words in the vocabulary at his command, and instead of adopting into the <lb/>text his native German terms, he coined several hundred Latin expressions <lb/>to answer his needs. It is upon this rock that most former attempts at <lb/>translation have been wrecked. Except for a very small number, we <lb/>believe we have been able to discover the intended meaning of such <lb/>expressions from a study of the context, assisted by a very incomplete <lb/>glossary prepared by the author himself, and by an exhaustive investigation <lb/>into the literature of these subjects during the sixteenth and seventeenth <lb/>centuries. That discovery in this particular has been only gradual and <lb/>obtained after much labour, may be indicated by the fact that the entire <lb/>text has been re-typewritten three times since the original, and some <lb/>parts more often; and further, that the printer's proof has been thrice revised. <lb/>We have found some English equivalent, more or less satisfactory, for <lb/>practically all such terms, except those of weights, the varieties of veins, <lb/>and a few minerals. In the matter of weights we have introduced the <lb/>original Latin, because it is impossible to give true equivalents and avoid the <lb/>fractions of reduction; and further, as explained in the Appendix on Weights it <lb/>is impossible to say in many cases what scale the Author had in mind. The <lb/>English nomenclature to be adopted has given great difficulty, for various <lb/>reasons; among them, that many methods and processes described have <lb/>never been practised in English-speaking mining communities, and so had no <lb/>representatives in our vocabulary, and we considered the introduction of <lb/>German terms undesirable; other methods and processes have become <lb/>obsolete and their descriptive terms with them, yet we wished to avoid <lb/>the introduction of obsolete or unusual English; but of the greatest <lb/>importance of all has been the necessity to avoid rigorously such modern <lb/>technical terms as would imply a greater scientific understanding than the <lb/>period possessed.</s>

<s>Agricola's Latin, while mostly free from mediæval corruption, is some<lb/>what tainted with German construction. Moreover some portions have not

<pb pagenum="ii"/>the continuous flow of sustained thought which others display, but the fact <lb/>that the writing of the work extended over a period of twenty years, suffic<lb/>iently explains the considerable variation in style. The technical descriptions <lb/>in the later books often take the form of House-that-Jack-built sentences <lb/>which have had to be at least partially broken up and the subject <lb/>occasionally re-introduced. Ambiguities were also sometimes found which it <lb/>was necessary to carry on into the translation. Despite these criticisms we <lb/>must, however, emphasize that Agricola was infinitely clearer in his style <lb/>than his contemporaries upon such subjects, or for that matter than his <lb/>successors in almost any language for a couple of centuries. All of the <lb/>illustrations and display letters of the original have been reproduced and <lb/>the type as closely approximates to the original as the printers have been <lb/>able to find in a modern font.</s>

<s>There are no footnotes in the original text, and Mr. Hoover is responsible <lb/>for them all. He has attempted in them to give not only such comment <lb/>as would tend to clarify the text, but also such information as we have <lb/>been able to discover with regard to the previous history of the subjects <lb/>mentioned. We have confined the historical notes to the time prior to <lb/>Agricola, because to have carried them down to date in the briefest manner <lb/>would have demanded very much more space than could be allowed. In the <lb/>examination of such technical and historical material one is appalled at the <lb/>flood of mis-information with regard to ancient arts and sciences which has <lb/>been let loose upon the world by the hands of non-technical translators and <lb/>commentators. At an early stage we considered that we must justify any <lb/>divergence of view from such authorities, but to limit the already alarming <lb/>volume of this work, we later felt compelled to eliminate most of such dis<lb/>cussion. When the half-dozen most important of the ancient works bearing <lb/>upon science have been translated by those of some scientific experience, <lb/>such questions will, no doubt, be properly settled.</s>

<s>We need make no apologies for <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca.<emph.end type="italics"/> During 180 years <lb/>it was not superseded as the text-book and guide to miners and metallurgists, <lb/>for until Schlüter's great work on metallurgy in 1738 it had no equal. That <lb/>it passed through some ten editions in three languages at a period when the <lb/>printing of such a volume was no ordinary undertaking, is in itself sufficient <lb/>evidence of the importance in which it was held, and is a record that no other <lb/>volume upon the same subjects has equalled since. A large proportion of the <lb/>technical data given by Agricola was either entirely new, or had not been <lb/>given previously with sufficient detail and explanation to have enabled a <lb/>worker in these arts himself to perform the operations without further guid<lb/>ance. Practically the whole of it must have been given from personal ex<lb/>perience and observation, for the scant library at his service can be appreci<lb/>ated from his own Preface. Considering the part which the metallic arts <lb/>have played in human history, the paucity of their literature down to <lb/>Agricola's time is amazing. No doubt the arts were jealously guarded by <lb/>their practitioners as a sort of stock-in-trade, and it is also probable that <lb/>those who had knowledge were not usually of a literary turn of mind; and,

<pb pagenum="iii"/>on the other hand, the small army of writers prior to his time were not much <lb/>interested in the description of industrial pursuits. Moreover, in those <lb/>thousands of years prior to printing, the tedious and expensive transcription of <lb/>manuscripts by hand was mostly applied to matters of more general interest, <lb/>and therefore many writings may have been lost in consequence. In fact, <lb/>such was the fate of the works of Theophrastus and Strato on these subjects.</s>

<s>We have prepared a short sketch of Agricola's life and times, not only <lb/>to give some indication of his learning and character, but also of his <lb/>considerable position in the community in which he lived. As no appreciation <lb/>of Agricola's stature among the founders of science can be gained without <lb/>consideration of the advance which his works display over those of his <lb/>predecessors, we therefore devote some attention to the state of knowledge <lb/>of these subjects at the time by giving in the Appendix a short review of the <lb/>literature then extant and a summary of Agricola's other writings. To serve the <lb/>bibliophile we present such data as we have been able to collect it with regard <lb/>to the various editions of his works. The full titles of the works quoted in <lb/>the footnotes under simply authors' names will be found in this Appendix.</s>

<s>We feel that it is scarcely doing Agricola justice to publish <emph type="italics"/>De Re <lb/>Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> only. While it is of the most general interest of all of his works, <lb/>yet, from the point of view of pure science, <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossílíum<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Ortu et Causís<emph.end type="italics"/> are works which deserve an equally important place. It is <lb/>unfortunate that Agricola's own countrymen have not given to the world <lb/>competent translations into German, as his work has too often been judged <lb/>by the German translations, the infidelity of which appears in nearly every <lb/>paragraph.</s>

<s>We do not present <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> as a work of “practical” value. <lb/>The methods and processes have long since been superseded; yet surely such <lb/>a milestone on the road of development of one of the two most basic of human <lb/>industrial activities is more worthy of preservation than the thousands of <lb/>volumes devoted to records of human destruction. To those interested in <lb/>the history of their own profession we need make no apologies, except <lb/>for the long delay in publication. For this we put forward the necessity of <lb/>active endeavour in many directions; as this book could be but a labour of <lb/>love, it has had to find the moments for its execution in night hours, week<lb/>ends, and holidays, in all extending over a period of about five years. If the <lb/>work serves to strengthen the traditions of one of the most important and <lb/>least recognized of the world's professions we shall be amply repaid.</s>

<s>It is our pleasure to acknowledge our obligations to Professor H. R. <lb/>Fairclough, of Stanford University, for perusal of and suggestions upon the first <lb/>chapter; and to those whom we have engaged from time to time for one service <lb/>or another, chiefly bibliographical work and collateral translation. We are <lb/>also sensibly obligated to the printers, Messrs. Frost & Sons, for their patience <lb/>and interest, and for their willingness to bend some of the canons of modern <lb/>printing, to meet the demands of the 16th Century.</s>

<s>THE RED HOUSE,</s>

<s>HORNTON STREET, LONDON.</s>

<pb/>

<s><emph type="bold"/>INTRODUCTION.<emph.end type="bold"/></s>

<s>BIOGRAPHY.</s>

<s>Georgius Agricola was born at Glauchau, in <lb/>Saxony, on March 24th, 1494, and therefore entered <lb/>the world when it was still upon the threshold of the <lb/>Renaissance; Gutenberg's first book had been print<lb/>ed but forty years before; the Humanists had but <lb/>begun that stimulating criticism which awoke the <lb/>Reformation; Erasmus, of Rotterdam, who was sub<lb/>sequently to become Agricola's friend and patron, <lb/>was just completing his student days. The Refor<lb/>mation itself was yet to come, but it was not long delayed, for Luther <lb/>was born the year before Agricola, and through him Agricola's home<lb/>land became the cradle of the great movement; nor did Agricola escape being <lb/>drawn into the conflict. Italy, already awake with the new classical revival, was <lb/>still a busy workshop of antiquarian research, translation, study, and <lb/>publication, and through her the Greek and Latin Classics were only <lb/>now available for wide distribution. Students from the rest of Europe, <lb/>among them at a later time Agricola himself, flocked to the Italian <lb/>Universities, and on their return infected their native cities with the newly<lb/>awakened learning. At Agricola's birth Columbus had just returned from his <lb/>great discovery, and it was only three years later that Vasco Da Gama rounded <lb/>Cape Good Hope. Thus these two foremost explorers had only initiated <lb/>that greatest period of geographical expansion in the world's history. A few <lb/>dates will recall how far this exploration extended during Agricola's lifetime. <lb/>Balboa first saw the Pacific in 1513; Cortes entered the City of Mexico in <lb/>1520; Magellan entered the Pacific in the same year; Pizarro penetrated <lb/>into Peru in 1528; De Soto landed in Florida in 1539, and Potosi was dis<lb/>covered in 1546. Omitting the sporadic settlement on the St. Lawrence by <lb/>Cartier in 1541, the settlement of North America did not begin for a quarter <lb/>of a century after Agricola's death. Thus the revival of learning, with its <lb/>train of Humanism, the Reformation, its stimulation of exploration and the <lb/>re-awakening of the arts and sciences, was still in its infancy with Agricola.</s>

<s>We know practically nothing of Agricola's antecedents or his youth. His <lb/>real name was Georg Bauer (“peasant”), and it was probably Latinized by <lb/>his teachers, as was the custom of the time. His own brother, in receipts

<pb pagenum="vi"/>preserved in the archives of the Zwickau Town Council, calls himself “Bauer,” <lb/>and in them refers to his brother “Agricola.” He entered the University of <lb/>Leipsic at the age of twenty, and after about three and one-half years' attendance <lb/>there gained the degree of <emph type="italics"/>Baccalaureus Artíum.<emph.end type="italics"/> In 1518 he became Vice<lb/>Principal of the Municipal School at Zwickau, where he taught Greek and Latin. <lb/>In 1520 he became Principal, and among his assistants was Johannes Förster, <lb/>better known as Luther's collaborator in the translation of the Bible. During <lb/>this time our author prepared and published a small Latin Grammar<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>. In <lb/>1522 he removed to Leipsic to become a lecturer in the University under his <lb/>friend, Petrus Mosellanus, at whose death in 1524 he went to Italy for the <lb/>further study of Philosophy, Medicine, and the Natural Sciences. Here he <lb/>remained for nearly three years, from 1524 to 1526. He visited the Universities <lb/>of Bologna, Venice, and probably Padua, and at these institutions received <lb/>his first inspiration to work in the sciences, for in a letter<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/> from Leonardus <lb/>Casibrotius to Erasmus we learn that he was engaged upon a revision of Galen. <lb/>It was about this time that he made the acquaintance of Erasmus, who had <lb/>settled at Basel as Editor for Froben's press.</s>

<s>In 1526 Agricola returned to Zwickau, and in 1527 he was chosen town <lb/>physician at Joachimsthal. This little city in Bohemia is located on the <lb/>eastern slope of the Erzgebirge, in the midst of the then most prolific metal<lb/>mining district of Central Europe. Thence to Freiberg is but fifty miles, <lb/>and the same radius from that city would include most of the mining towns <lb/>so frequently mentioned in <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/>—Schneeberg, Geyer, Annaberg <lb/>and Altenberg—and not far away were Marienberg, Gottesgab, and Platten. <lb/>Joachimsthal was a booming mining camp, founded but eleven years before <lb/>Agricola's arrival, and already having several thousand inhabitants. Accord<lb/>ing to Agricola's own statement<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>, he spent all the time not required for his <lb/>medical duties in visiting the mines and smelters, in reading up in the Greek and <lb/>Latin authors all references to mining, and in association with the most learned <lb/>among the mining folk. Among these was one Lorenz Berman, whom Agricola <lb/>afterward set up as the “learned miner” in his dialogue <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"/> This <lb/>book was first published by Froben at Basel in 1530, and was a sort of <lb/>catechism on mineralogy, mining terms, and mining lore. The book was <lb/>apparently first submitted to the great Erasmus, and the publication arranged <lb/>by him, a warm letter of approval by him appearing at the beginning of the <lb/>book<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>. In 1533 he published <emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus,<emph.end type="italics"/> through Froben, <lb/>this being a discussion of Roman and Greek weights and measures. At <lb/>about this time he began <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/>—not to be published for <lb/>twenty-five years.<lb/><lb/><lb/></s>

<s>Agricola did not confine his interest entirely to medicine and mining, <lb/>for during this period he composed a pamphlet upon the Turks, urging their <lb/>extermination by the European powers. This work was no doubt inspired by <lb/>the Turkish siege of Vienna in 1529. It appeared first in German in 1531, <lb/>and in Latin—in which it was originally written—in 1538, and passed through <lb/>many subsequent editions.</s>

<s>At this time, too, he became interested in the God's Gift mine at <lb/>Albertham, which was discovered in 1530. Writing in 1545, he says<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>: <lb/>“We, as a shareholder, through the goodness of God, have enjoyed the <lb/>proceeds of this God's Gift since the very time when the mine began first <lb/>to bestow such riches.”</s>

<s>Agricola seems to have resigned his position at Joachimsthal in about <lb/>1530, and to have devoted the next two or three years to travel and study <lb/>among the mines. About 1533 he became city physician of Chemnitz, in <lb/>Saxony, and here he resided until his death in 1555. There is but little <lb/>record of his activities during the first eight or nine years of his residence in <lb/>this city. He must have been engaged upon the study of his subjects and <lb/>the preparation of his books, for they came on with great rapidity soon after. <lb/>He was frequently consulted on matters of mining engineering, as, for instance, <lb/>we learn, from a letter written by a certain Johannes Hordeborch<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>, that <lb/>Duke Henry of Brunswick applied to him with regard to the method for <lb/>working mines in the Upper Harz.</s>

<s>In 1543 he married Anna, widow of Matthias Meyner, a petty tithe <lb/>official; there is some reason to believe from a letter published by Schmid,<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>that Anna was his second wife, and that he was married the first time at <lb/>Joachimsthal. He seems to have had several children, for he commends his <lb/>young children to the care of the Town Council during his absence at the <lb/>war in 1547. In addition to these, we know that a son, Theodor, was born <lb/>in 1550; a daughter, Anna, in 1552; another daughter, Irene, was buried at <lb/>Chemnitz in 1555; and in 1580 his widow and three children—Anna, <lb/>Valerius, and Lucretia—were still living.</s>

<s>In 1544 began the publication of the series of books to which Agricola <lb/>owes his position. The first volume comprised five works and was finally <lb/>issued in 1546; it was subsequently considerably revised, and re-issued in 1558. <lb/>These works were: <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causís Subterraneorum,<emph.end type="italics"/> in five “books,” the <lb/>first work on physical geology; <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra,<emph.end type="italics"/> in <lb/>four “books,” on subterranean waters and gases; <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> in <lb/>ten “books,” the first systematic mineralogy; <emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novís Metallís,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>in two “books,” devoted largely to the history of metals and topographical <lb/>mineralogy; a new edition of <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus<emph.end type="italics"/> was included; and finally <emph type="italics"/>Rerum <lb/>Metallícarum Interpretatio,<emph.end type="italics"/> a glossary of Latin and German mineralogical <lb/>and metallurgical terms. Another work, <emph type="italics"/>De Animantíbus Subterraneis,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>usually published with <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> is dated 1548 in the preface. It <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="viii"/>is devoted to animals which live underground, at least part of the time, but <lb/>is not a very effective basis of either geologic or zoologic classi<lb/>fication. Despite many public activities, Agricola apparently completed <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> in 1550, but did not send it to the press until 1553; nor <lb/>did it appear until a year after his death in 1555. But we give further details <lb/>on the preparation of this work on p. xv. During this period he found time <lb/>to prepare a small medical work, <emph type="italics"/>De Peste,<emph.end type="italics"/> and certain historical studies, <lb/>details of which appear in the Appendix. There are other works by Agricola re<lb/>ferred to by sixteenth century writers, but so far we have not been able to find <lb/>them although they may exist. Such data as we have, is given in the appendix.</s>

<s>As a young man, Agricola seems to have had some tendencies toward <lb/>liberalism in religious matters, for while at Zwickau he composed some anti<lb/>Popish Epigrams; but after his return to Leipsic he apparently never wavered, <lb/>and steadily refused to accept the Lutheran Reformation. To many even <lb/>liberal scholars of the day, Luther's doctrines appeared wild and demagogic. <lb/>Luther was not a scholarly man; his addresses were to the masses; his Latin <lb/>was execrable. Nor did the bitter dissensions over hair-splitting theology in <lb/>the Lutheran Church after Luther's death tend to increase respect for the <lb/>movement among the learned. Agricola was a scholar of wide attainments, <lb/>a deep-thinking, religious man, and he remained to the end a staunch Catholic, <lb/>despite the general change of sentiment among his countrymen. His leanings <lb/>were toward such men as his friend the humanist, Erasmus. That he had <lb/>the courage of his convictions is shown in the dedication of <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Eorum,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>where he addresses to his friend, Duke Maurice, the pious advice that the <lb/>dissensions of the Germans should be composed, and that the Duke should return <lb/>to the bosom of the Church those who had been torn from her, and adds: “Yet <lb/>I do not wish to become confused by these turbulent waters, and be led to <lb/>offend anyone. It is more advisable to check my utterances.” As he <lb/>became older he may have become less tolerant in religious matters, for he <lb/>did not seem to show as much patience in the discussion of ecclesiastical topics <lb/>as he must have possessed earlier, yet he maintained to the end the respect <lb/>and friendship of such great Protestants as Melanchthon, Camerarius, Fabricius, <lb/>and many others.</s>

<s>In 1546, when he was at the age of 52, began Agricola's activity in <lb/>public life, for in that year he was elected a Burgher of Chemnitz; and in the <lb/>same year Duke Maurice appointed him Burgomaster—an office which <lb/>he held for four terms. Before one can gain an insight into his political <lb/>services, and incidentally into the character of the man, it is necessary to <lb/>understand the politics of the time and his part therein, and to bear in mind <lb/>always that he was a staunch Catholic under a Protestant Sovereign in a <lb/>State seething with militant Protestantism.</s>

<s>Saxony had been divided in 1485 between the Princes Ernest and Albert, <lb/>the former taking the Electoral dignity and the major portion of the Princi<lb/>pality. Albert the Brave, the younger brother and Duke of Saxony, obtained <lb/>the subordinate portion, embracing Meissen, but subject to the Elector. <lb/>The Elector Ernest was succeeded in 1486 by Frederick the Wise, and under

<pb pagenum="ix"/>his support Luther made Saxony the cradle of the Reformation. This <lb/>Elector was succeeded in 1525 by his brother John, who was in turn succeeded <lb/>by his son John Frederick in 1532. Of more immediate interest to this subject <lb/>is the Albertian line of Saxon Dukes who ruled Meissen, for in that Princi<lb/>pality Agricola was born and lived, and his political fortunes were associated <lb/>with this branch of the Saxon House. Albert was succeeded in 1505 by his <lb/>son George, “The Bearded,” and he in turn by his brother Henry, the last <lb/>of the Catholics, in 1539, who ruled until 1541. Henry was succeeded in 1541 <lb/>by his Protestant son Maurice, who was the Patron of Agricola.</s>

<s>At about this time Saxony was drawn into the storms which rose from <lb/>the long-standing rivalry between Francis I., King of France, and Charles V. <lb/>of Spain. These two potentates came to the throne in the same year (1515), <lb/>and both were candidates for Emperor of that loose Confederation known <lb/>as the Holy Roman Empire. Charles was elected, and intermittent wars <lb/>between these two Princes arose—first in one part of Europe, and then in <lb/>another. Francis finally formed an alliance with the Schmalkalden League <lb/>of German Protestant Princes, and with the Sultan of Turkey, against Charles. <lb/>In 1546 Maurice of Meissen, although a Protestant, saw his best interest in <lb/>a secret league with Charles against the other Protestant Princes, and pro<lb/>ceeded (the Schmalkalden War) to invade the domains of his superior and <lb/>cousin, the Elector Frederick. The Emperor Charles proved successful in <lb/>this war, and Maurice was rewarded, at the Capitulation of Wittenberg in 1547, <lb/>by being made Elector of Saxony in the place of his cousin. Later on, the <lb/>Elector Maurice found the association with Catholic Charles unpalatable, and <lb/>joined in leading the other Protestant princes in war upon him, and on the <lb/>defeat of the Catholic party and the peace of Passau, Maurice became <lb/>acknowledged as the champion of German national and religious freedom. <lb/>He was succeeded by his brother Augustus in 1553.</s>

<s>Agricola was much favoured by the Saxon Electors, Maurice and <lb/>Augustus. He dedicates most of his works to them, and shows much gratitude <lb/>for many favours conferred upon him. Duke Maurice presented to him a <lb/>house and plot in Chemnitz, and in a letter dated June 14th, 1543,<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> in con<lb/>nection therewith, says: “ . . . . that he may enjoy his life-long a <lb/>freehold house unburdened by all burgher rights and other municipal ser<lb/>vice, to be used by him and inhabited as a free dwelling, and that he may <lb/>also, for the necessities of his household and of his wife and servants, brew <lb/>his own beer free, and that he may likewise purvey for himself and his <lb/>household foreign beer and also wine for use, and yet he shall not sell any <lb/>such beer. . . . We have taken the said Doctor under our especial <lb/>protection and care for our life-long, and he shall not be summoned before <lb/>any Court of Justice, but only before us and our Councillor. . . .”</s>

<s>Agricola was made Burgomaster of Chemnitz in 1546. A letter<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> from <lb/>Fabricius to Meurer, dated May 19th, 1546, says that Agricola had been <lb/>

<pb pagenum="x"/>made Burgomaster by the command of the Prince. This would be Maurice, <lb/>and it is all the more a tribute to the high respect with which Agricola was <lb/>held, for, as said before, he was a consistent Catholic, and Maurice a Protestant <lb/>Prince. In this same year the Schmalkalden War broke out, and Agricola <lb/>was called to personal attendance upon the Duke Maurice in a diplomatic <lb/>and advisory capacity. In 1546 also he was a member of the Diet of Freiberg, <lb/>and was summoned to Council in Dresden. The next year he continued, by <lb/>the Duke's command, Burgomaster at Chemnitz, although he seems to have <lb/>been away upon Ducal matters most of the time. The Duke addresses<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>the Chemnitz Council in March, 1547: “We hereby make known to you <lb/>that we are in urgent need of your Burgomaster, Dr. Georgius Agricola, <lb/>with us. It is, therefore, our will that you should yield him up and forward <lb/>him that he should with the utmost haste set forth to us here near Freiberg.” <lb/>He was sent on various missions from the Duke to the Emperor Charles, to <lb/>King Ferdinand of Austria, and to other Princes in matters connected with the <lb/>war—the fact that he was a Catholic probably entering into his appointment <lb/>to such missions. Chemnitz was occupied by the troops of first one side, then <lb/>the other, despite the great efforts of Agricola to have his own town specially <lb/>defended. In April, 1547, the war came to an end in the Battle of Mühlberg, <lb/>but Agricola was apparently not relieved of his Burgomastership until the <lb/>succeeding year, for he wrote his friend Wolfgang Meurer, in April, 1548,<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>that he “was now relieved.” His public duties did not end, however, for he <lb/>attended the Diet of Leipzig in 1547 and in 1549, and was at the Diet <lb/>at Torgau in 1550. In 1551 he was again installed as Burgomaster; and in <lb/>1553, for the fourth time, he became head of the Municipality, and during <lb/>this year had again to attend the Diets at Leipzig and Dresden, representing <lb/>his city. He apparently now had a short relief from public duties, for it is <lb/>not until 1555, shortly before his death, that we find him again attending a <lb/>Diet at Torgau.</s>

<s>Agricola died on November 21st, 1555. A letter<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> from his life-long friend, <lb/>Fabricius, to Melanchthon, announcing this event, states: “We lost, on <lb/>November 21st, that distinguished ornament of our Fatherland, Georgius <lb/>Agricola, a man of eminent intellect, of culture and of judgment. He <lb/>attained the age of 62. He who since the days of childhood had enjoyed <lb/>robust health was carried off by a four-days' fever. He had previously <lb/>suffered from no disease except inflammation of the eyes, which he brought <lb/>upon himself by untiring study and insatiable reading. . . I know that <lb/>you loved the soul of this man, although in many of his opinions, more <lb/>especially in religious and spiritual welfare, he differed in many points from <lb/>our own. For he despised our Churches, and would not be with us in the <lb/>Communion of the Blood of Christ. Therefore, after his death, at the <lb/>command of the Prince, which was given to the Church inspectors and <lb/>carried out by Tettelbach as a loyal servant, burial was refused him, and not <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="xi"/>until the fourth day was he borne away to Zeitz and interred in the Cathedral. <lb/>. . . . I have always admired the genius of this man, so distinguished <lb/>in our sciences and in the whole realm of Philosophy—yet I wonder at his <lb/>religious views, which were compatible with reason, it is true, and were <lb/>dazzling, but were by no means compatible with truth. . . . He <lb/>would not tolerate with patience that anyone should discuss ecclesiastical <lb/>matters with him.” This action of the authorities in denying burial to one <lb/>of their most honored citizens, who had been ever assiduous in furthering <lb/>the welfare of the community, seems strangely out of joint. Further, the <lb/>Elector Augustus, although a Protestant Prince, was Agricola's warm friend, <lb/>as evidenced by his letter of but a few months before (see p. xv). However, <lb/>Catholics were then few in number at Chemnitz, and the feeling ran high at the <lb/>time, so possibly the Prince was afraid of public disturbances. Hofmann<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>explains this occurrence in the following words:—“The feelings of Chemnitz <lb/>citizens, who were almost exclusively Protestant, must certainly be taken <lb/>into account. They may have raised objections to the solemn interment of <lb/>a Catholic in the Protestant Cathedral Church of St. Jacob, which had, <lb/>perhaps, been demanded by his relatives, and to which, according to the <lb/>custom of the time, he would have been entitled as Burgomaster. The <lb/>refusal to sanction the interment aroused, more especially in the Catholic <lb/>world, a painful sensation.”</s>

<s>A brass memorial plate hung in the Cathedral at Zeitz had already <lb/>disappeared in 1686, nor have the cities of his birth or residence ever shown <lb/>any appreciation of this man, whose work more deserves their gratitude <lb/>than does that of the multitude of soldiers whose monuments decorate every <lb/>village and city square. It is true that in 1822 a marble tablet was <lb/>placed behind the altar in the Church of St. Jacob in Chemnitz, but even <lb/>this was removed to the Historical Museum later on.</s>

<s>He left a modest estate, which was the subject of considerable litigation by <lb/>his descendants, due to the mismanagement of the guardian. Hofmann has <lb/>succeeded in tracing the descendants for two generations, down to 1609, but <lb/>the line is finally lost among the multitude of other Agricolas.</s>

<s>To deduce Georgius Agricola's character we need not search beyond the <lb/>discovery of his steadfast adherence to the religion of his fathers amid the <lb/>bitter storm of Protestantism around him, and need but to remember at the <lb/>same time that for twenty-five years he was entrusted with elective positions <lb/>of an increasingly important character in this same community. No man <lb/>could have thus held the respect of his countrymen unless he were devoid of <lb/>bigotry and possessed of the highest sense of integrity, justice, humanity, <lb/>and patriotism.</s>

<s>AGRICOLA'S INTELLECTUAL ATTAINMENTS AND <lb/>POSITION IN SCIENCE.</s>

<s>Agricola's education was the most thorough that his times afforded in <lb/>the classics, philosophy, medicine, and sciences generally. Further, his writings <lb/>disclose a most exhaustive knowledge not only of an extraordinary range of <lb/>classical literature, but also of obscure manuscripts buried in the public libraries <lb/>of Europe. That his general learning was held to be of a high order is amply <lb/>evidenced from the correspondence of the other scholars of his time—Erasmus, <lb/>Melanchthon, Meurer, Fabricius, and others.</s>

<s>Our more immediate concern, however, is with the advances which were due <lb/>to him in the sciences of Geology, Mineralogy, and Mining Engineering. No <lb/>appreciation of these attainments can be conveyed to the reader unless he <lb/>has some understanding of the dearth of knowledge in these sciences prior <lb/>to Agricola's time. We have in Appendix B given a brief review of the <lb/>literature extant at this period on these subjects. Furthermore, no appreciation <lb/>of Agricola's contribution to science can be gained without a study of <emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Ortu et Causís<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> for while <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> is of much <lb/>more general interest, it contains but incidental reference to Geology and <lb/>Mineralogy. Apart from the book of Genesis, the only attempts at funda<lb/>mental explanation of natural phenomena were those of the Greek Philosophers <lb/>and the Alchemists. Orthodox beliefs Agricola scarcely mentions; with the <lb/>Alchemists he had no patience. There can be no doubt, however, that his <lb/>views are greatly coloured by his deep classical learning. He was in fine to a <lb/>certain distance a follower of Aristotle, Theophrastus, Strato, and other leaders <lb/>of the Peripatetic school. For that matter, except for the muddy current <lb/>which the alchemists had introduced into this already troubled stream, <lb/>the whole thought of the learned world still flowed from the Greeks. Had he <lb/>not, however, radically departed from the teachings of the Peripatetic school, <lb/>his work would have been no contribution to the development of science. <lb/>Certain of their teachings he repudiated with great vigour, and his <lb/>laboured and detailed arguments in their refutation form the first battle in <lb/>science over the results of observation <emph type="italics"/>versus<emph.end type="italics"/> inductive speculation. To use <lb/>his own words: “Those things which we see with our eyes and understand <lb/>by means of our senses are more clearly to be demonstrated than if learned <lb/>by means of reasoning.”<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/> The bigoted scholasticism of his times necessi<lb/>tated as much care and detail in refutation of such deep-rooted beliefs, as would <lb/>be demanded to-day by an attempt at a refutation of the theory of evolution, <lb/>and in consequence his works are often but dry reading to any but those <lb/>interested in the development of fundamental scientific theory.</s>

<s>In giving an appreciation of Agricola's views here and throughout the <lb/>footnotes, we do not wish to convey to the reader that he was in all things <lb/>free from error and from the spirit of his times, or that his theories, constructed <lb/>long before the atomic theory, are of the clear-cut order which that <lb/>basic hypothesis has rendered possible to later scientific speculation in these <lb/>branches. His statements are sometimes much confused, but we reiterate that

<pb pagenum="xiii"/>their clarity is as crystal to mud in comparison with those of his predecessors— <lb/>and of most of his successors for over two hundred years. As an indication of <lb/>his grasp of some of the wider aspects of geological phenomena we reproduce, <lb/>in Appendix A, a passage from <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causís,<emph.end type="italics"/> which we believe to be the <lb/>first adequate declaration of the part played by erosion in mountain sculpture. <lb/>But of all of Agricola's theoretical views those are of the greatest interest which <lb/>relate to the origin of ore deposits, for in these matters he had the greatest <lb/>opportunities of observation and the most experience. We have on page 108 <lb/>reproduced and discussed his theory at considerable length, but we may repeat <lb/>here, that in his propositions as to the circulation of ground waters, that ore <lb/>channels are a subsequent creation to the contained rocks, and that they <lb/>were filled by deposition from circulating solutions, he enunciated the founda<lb/>tions of our modern theory, and in so doing took a step in advance greater than <lb/>that of any single subsequent authority. In his contention that ore channels <lb/>were created by erosion of subterranean waters he was wrong, except for <lb/>special cases, and it was not until two centuries later that a further step in <lb/>advance was taken by the recognition by Van Oppel of the part played by <lb/>fissuring in these phenomena. Nor was it until about the same time that the <lb/>filling of ore channels in the main by deposition from solutions was generally <lb/>accepted. While Werner, two hundred and fifty years after Agricola, is <lb/>generally revered as the inspirer of the modern theory by those whose reading <lb/>has taken them no farther back, we have no hesitation in asserting that of the <lb/>propositions of each author, Agricola's were very much more nearly in <lb/>accord with modern views. Moreover, the main result of the new ideas <lb/>brought forward by Werner was to stop the march of progress for half a <lb/>century, instead of speeding it forward as did those of Agricola.</s>

<s>In mineralogy Agricola made the first attempt at systematic treatment <lb/>of the subject. His system could not be otherwise than wrongly based, <lb/>as he could scarcely see forward two or three centuries to the atomic theory <lb/>and our vast fund of chemical knowledge. However, based as it is upon <lb/>such properties as solubility and homogeneity, and upon external character<lb/>istics such as colour, hardness, &c., it makes a most creditable advance <lb/>upon Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Albertus Magnus—his only predecessors. <lb/>He is the first to assert that bismuth and antimony are true primary metals; <lb/>and to some sixty actual mineral species described previous to his time he <lb/>added some twenty more, and laments that there are scores unnamed.</s>

<s>As to Agricola's contribution to the sciences of mining and metal<lb/>lurgy, <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> speaks for itself. While he describes, for the first <lb/>time, scores of methods and processes, no one would contend that they <lb/>were discoveries or inventions of his own. They represent the accumulation <lb/>of generations of experience and knowledge; but by him they were, for the <lb/>first time, to receive detailed and intelligent exposition. Until Schlüter's <lb/>work nearly two centuries later, it was not excelled. There is no measure by <lb/>which we may gauge the value of such a work to the men who followed in <lb/>this profession during centuries, nor the benefits enjoyed by humanity <lb/>through them.</s>

<s>That Agricola occupied a very considerable place in the great awakening of <lb/>learning will be disputed by none except by those who place the development <lb/>of science in rank far below religion, politics, literature, and art. Of wider <lb/>importance than the details of his achievements in the mere confines of the <lb/>particular science to which he applied himself, is the fact that he was the first <lb/>to found any of the natural sciences upon research and observation, as opposed <lb/>to previous fruitless speculation. The wider interest of the members of the <lb/>medical profession in the development of their science than that of geologists <lb/>in theirs, has led to the aggrandizement of Paracelsus, a contem<lb/>porary of Agricola, as the first in deductive science. Yet no comparative <lb/>study of the unparalleled egotistical ravings of this half-genius, half-alchemist, <lb/>with the modest sober logic and real research and observation of Agricola, <lb/>can leave a moment's doubt as to the incomparably greater position which <lb/>should be attributed to the latter as the pioneer in building the foundation <lb/>of science by deduction from observed phenomena. Science is the base upon <lb/>which is reared the civilization of to-day, and while we give daily credit to all <lb/>those who toil in the superstructure, let none forget those men who laid its <lb/>first foundation stones. One of the greatest of these was Georgius Agricola.</s>

<pb/>

<s>Agricola seems to have been engaged in the preparation of <emph type="italics"/>De Re <lb/>Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> for a period of over twenty years, for we first hear of the book in a <lb/>letter from Petrus Plateanus, a schoolmaster at Joachimsthal, to the great <lb/>humanist, Erasmus,<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/> in September, 1529. He says: “The scientific world <lb/>will be still more indebted to Agricola when he brings to light the books <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> and other matters which he has on hand.” In the dedication <lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus<emph.end type="italics"/> (in 1533) Agricola states that he means to <lb/>publish twelve books <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> if he lives. That the appearance of this <lb/>work was eagerly anticipated is evidenced by a letter from George Fabricius <lb/>to Valentine Hertel:<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/> “With great excitement the books <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>are being awaited. If he treats the material at hand with his usual zeal, <lb/>he will win for himself glory such as no one in any of the fields of literature <lb/>has attained for the last thousand years.” According to the dedication of <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Veteríbus et Novis Metallís,<emph.end type="italics"/> Agricola in 1546 already looked forward to <lb/>its early publication. The work was apparently finished in 1550, for the <lb/>dedication to the Dukes Maurice and August of Saxony is dated in December of <lb/>that year. The eulogistic poem by his friend, George Fabricius, is dated in <lb/>1551.</s>

<s>The publication was apparently long delayed by the preparation of the <lb/>woodcuts; and, according to Mathesius,<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> many sketches for them were <lb/>prepared by Basilius Wefring. In the preface of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Agricola <lb/>does not mention who prepared the sketches, but does say: “I have hired <lb/>illustrators to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed <lb/>by words should either not be understood by men of our own times, or <lb/>should cause difficulty to posterity.” In 1553 the completed book was <lb/>sent to Froben for publication, for a letter<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/> from Fabricius to Meurer in <lb/>March, 1553, announces its dispatch to the printer. An interesting letter<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>from the Elector Augustus to Agricola, dated January 18, 1555, reads: <lb/>“Most learned, dear and faithful subject, whereas you have sent to the Press <lb/>a Latin book of which the title is said to be <emph type="italics"/>De Rebus Metallícis,<emph.end type="italics"/> which has <lb/>been praised to us and we should like to know the contents, it is our gracious <lb/>command that you should get the book translated when you have the <lb/>opportunity into German, and not let it be copied more than once or be <lb/>printed, but keep it by you and send us a copy. If you should need a <lb/>writer for this purpose, we will provide one. Thus you will fulfil our <lb/>gracious behest.” The German translation was prepared by Philip Bechius, <lb/>a Basel University Professor of Medicine and Philosophy. It is a wretched <lb/>work, by one who knew nothing of the science, and who more especially had no <lb/>appreciation of the peculiar Latin terms coined by Agricola, most of which<lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/></s>

<pb/>

<s>GEORGII AGRICOLAE</s>

<s>DE RE METALLICA LIBRI XII<28> QVI-</s>

<s>bus Officia, In&longs;trumenta, Machinæ, acomnia denique ad Metalli<lb/>tam &longs;pectantia, non modo luculenti&longs;&longs;imè de&longs;cribuntur, &longs;ed & per <lb/>effigies, &longs;uis locis in&longs;ertas, adiunctis Latinis, Germanicis&queacute; appel<lb/>lationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non po&longs;&longs;int.</s>

<s>BIVSDEM</s>

<s>DE ANIMANTIBVS SVBTERRANEIS Liber, ab Autore re<lb/>cognitus:cum Indicibus diuer&longs;is, quicquid in opere tractatum e&longs;t, <lb/>pulchrè demon&longs;trantibus.</s>

<s>BASILEAE M<28> D<28> LVI<28></s>

<s>Cum Priuilegio Imperatoris in annos v. <lb/>& Galliarum Regis ad Sexennium.</s>

<s>he rendered literally. It is a sad commentary on his countrymen that no <lb/>correct German translation exists. The Italian translation is by Michelangelo <lb/>Florio, and is by him dedicated to Elizabeth, Queen of England. The title <lb/>page of the first edition is reproduced later on, and the full titles of other <lb/>editions are given in the Appendix, together with the author's other works. <lb/>The following are the short titles of the various editions of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>together with the name and place of the publisher:—</s>

<s>LATIN EDITIONS.<lb/>

<arrow.to.target n="table1"></arrow.to.target></s>

<table>

<table.target id="table1"></table.target>

<row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben .. ..</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1556.</cell></row>

<row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben .. ..</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1561.</cell></row>

<row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Ludwig König</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1621.</cell></row>

<row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Emanuel König</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1657.</cell></row></table>

<s>In addition to these, Leupold,<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/> Schmid,<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> and others mention an octavo <lb/>edition, without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have not been able to <lb/>find a copy of this edition, and are not certain of its existence. The same <lb/>catalogues also mention an octavo edition of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> Wittenberg, <lb/>1612 or 1614, with notes by Joanne Sigfrido; but we believe this to be a <lb/>confusion with Agricola's subsidiary works, which were published at this <lb/>time and place, with such notes.</s>

<s>GERMAN EDITIONS.</s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Vom Bergkwerck,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben, Folio, 1557.</s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Bergwerck Buch,<emph.end type="italics"/> Sigmundi Feyrabendt, Frankfort-on-Main, folio, 1580.</s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Bergwerck Buch,<emph.end type="italics"/> Ludwig König, Basel, folio, 1621.</s>

<s>There are other editions than these, mentioned by bibliographers, but we <lb/>have been unable to confirm them in any library. The most reliable <lb/>of such bibliographies, that of John Ferguson,<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/> gives in addition to the <lb/>above; <emph type="italics"/>Bergwerkbuch,<emph.end type="italics"/> Basel, 1657, folio, and Schweinfurt, 1687, octavo.</s>

<s>ITALIAN EDITION.</s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>L'Arte de Metalli,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben, Basel, folio, 1563.</s>

<s>OTHER LANGUAGES.</s>

<s>So far as we know, <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> was never actually published in other <lb/>than Latin, German, and Italian. However, a portion of the accounts of <lb/>the firm of Froben were published in 1881<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/>, and therein is an entry under <lb/>March, 1560, of a sum to one Leodigaris Grymaldo for some other work, and <lb/>also for “correction of Agricola's <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> in French.” This may <lb/>of course, be an error for the Italian edition, which appeared a little later. <lb/>There is also mention<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> that a manuscript of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> in Spanish was <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="xvii"/>seen in the library of the town of Bejar. An interesting note appears in <lb/>the glossary given by Sir John Pettus in his translation of Lazarus Erckern's <lb/>work on assaying. He says<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/> “but I cannot enlarge my observations upon <lb/>any more words, because the printer calls for what I did write of a metallick <lb/>dictionary, after I first proposed the printing of Erckern, but intending <lb/>within the compass of a year to publish Georgius Agricola, <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>(being fully translated) in English, and also to add a dictionary to it, I <lb/>shall reserve my remaining essays (if what I have done hitherto be approved) <lb/>till then, and so I proceed in the dictionary.” The translation was never <lb/>published and extensive inquiry in various libraries and among the family <lb/>of Pettus has failed to yield any trace of the manuscript.<lb/></s>

<s>GEORGIVS FABRICIVS IN LI-</s>

<s>bros Metallicos GEORGII AGRICOL AE phi<gap/><lb/>lo&longs;ophi præ&longs;tanti&longs;&longs;imi.</s>

<s>AD LECTOREM.</s>

<s>Siiuuat ignita cogno&longs;cere fronte Chimæram, <lb/>Semicanem nympham, &longs;emibouem&queacute; uirum:</s>

<s>Sicentum capitum Titanem, tot&queacute; ferentem <lb/>Sublimem manibus tela cruenta Gygen:</s>

<s>Siiuuat Ætneum penetrare Cyclopis in antrum, <lb/>Atque alios, Vates quos peperere, metus:</s>

<s>Nunc placeat mecum doctos euoluere libros, <lb/>Ingenium AGRICOLAE quos dedit acre tibi.</s>

<s>Non hic uana tenet &longs;u&longs;pen&longs;am fabula mentem: <lb/>Sed precium, utilitas multa, legentis erit.</s>

<s>Quidquid terra &longs;inu, gremio&queacute; recondiditimo, <lb/>Omne tibi multis eruit ante libris:</s>

<s>Siue fluens &longs;uperas ultro nitatur in oras, <lb/>Inueniat facilem &longs;eu magis arte uiam.</s>

<s>Perpetui proprns manant de fontibus amnes, <lb/>E&longs;t grauis Albuneæ &longs;ponte Mephitis odor.</s>

<s>Lethales &longs;unt &longs;ponte &longs;crobes Dicæarchidis oræ, <lb/>Et micat è media conditus ignis humo.</s>

<s>Plana Nari&longs;corum cùm tellus ar&longs;itin agro, <lb/>Ter curua nondum falce re&longs;ecta Ceres.</s>

<s>Nec dedit hoc damnum pa&longs;tor, riec Iuppiterigne: <lb/>Vulcani per &longs;eruperat ira &longs;olum.</s>

<s>Terrifico aura foras erumpens, incita motu, <lb/>Sæpefacit montes, antè ubi plana uia e&longs;t.</s>

<s>Hæcab&longs;tru&longs;a cauis, imo&queacute; incognita fundo, <lb/>Cognita natura &longs;æpe fuere duce.</s>

<s>Arte hominum, in lucem ueniunt quoque multa, manu&queacute; <lb/>Terræ multiplices effodiuntur opes.</s>

<s>Lydia &longs;icnitrum profert, Islandia &longs;ulfur, <lb/>Acmodò Tyrrhenus mittit alumen ager.</s>

<s>Succina, quâ trifi do &longs;ubit æquor Vi&longs;tula cornu, <lb/>Pi&longs;cantur Codano corpora &longs;erua &longs;inu.</s>

<s>Quid memorem regum precio&longs;a in&longs;ignia gemmas, <lb/>Marmora&queacute; excel&longs;is &longs;tructa &longs;ub a&longs;tra iugis?</s>

<s>Nil lapides, nil &longs;axa moror: &longs;unt pulchra metalia, <lb/>Cr&oelig;fetuis opibus clara, Myda&queacute; tuis,</s>

<s>Quæ&queacute; acer Macedo terra Creneide fodit, <lb/>Nomine permutans nomina pri&longs;ca &longs;uo.</s>

<s>Atnuncnon ullis cedit GERMANIA terris,

<pb pagenum="xxii"/>Terra ferax hominum, terra&queacute; diues opum.</s>

<s>Hic auri in uenis locupletibus aura refulget, <lb/>Non alio me&longs;&longs;is carior ulla loco.</s>

<s>Auricomum extulerit felix Campania ramum, <lb/>Nec fructu nobis de&longs;iciente cadit.</s>

<s>Eruit argenti &longs;olidas hoc tempore ma&longs;&longs;as <lb/>Fo&longs;&longs;or, dc proprijs arma&queacute; miles agris.</s>

<s>Ignotum Graijs e&longs;t He&longs;perijs&queacute; metallum, <lb/>Quod Bi&longs;emutum lingua paterna uocat.</s>

<s>Candidius nigro, &longs;ed plumbo nigrius albo, <lb/>No&longs;tra quoque hoc uena diuite fundit humus.</s>

<s>Funditur in tormenta, corus cum imitantia fulmen, <lb/>Æs, in&queacute; ho&longs;tiles ferrea ma&longs;&longs;a domos.</s>

<s>Scribuntur plumbo libri: quis credidit antè <lb/>Quàm mirandam artem Teutonis ora dedit?</s>

<s>Nec tamen hoc alijs, aut illa petuntur ab oris, <lb/>Eruta Germano cuncta metalla &longs;olo.</s>

<s>Sed quid ego hæc repeto, monumentis tradita claris <lb/>AGRICOLAE, quæ nunc docta per ora uolant?</s>

<s>Hic cau&longs;&longs;is ortus, & formas uiribus addit, <lb/>Et quærenda quibus &longs;int meliora locis.</s>

<s>Quæ &longs;i mente prius legi&longs;ti candidus æqua: <lb/>Da reliquis quoque nunc tempora pauca libris.</s>

<s>Vtilitas &longs;equitur cultorem: crede, uoluptas <lb/>Non iucunda minor, rara legentis, erit.</s>

<s>Iudicio&queacute; prius ne quis malè damnet iniquo, <lb/>Quæ &longs;unt auctoris munera mira Dei:</s>

<s>Eripit ip&longs;e &longs;uis primùm tela ho&longs;tibus, in&queacute; <lb/>Mittentis torquet &longs;picula rapta caput.</s>

<s>Fertur equo latro, uehitur pirata triremi: <lb/>Ergo necandus equus, nec fabricanda ratis?</s>

<s>Vi&longs;ceribus terræ lateant ab&longs;tru&longs;a metalla, <lb/>Vti opibus ne&longs;cit quòd mala turba &longs;uis?</s>

<s>Qui&longs;quis es, aut doctis pareto monentïbus, aut te <lb/>Inter habere bonos ne fateare locum.</s>

<s>Se non in prærupta metallicus abijcit audax, <lb/>Vt quondam immi&longs;&longs;o Curtius acer equo:</s>

<s>Sed prius edi&longs;cit, quæ &longs;unt no&longs;cenda perito, <lb/>Quod&queacute; facit, multa doctus ab arte facit.</s>

<s>Vt&queacute; gubernator &longs;eruat cum &longs;idere uentos: <lb/>Sic minimè dubijs utitur ille notis.</s>

<s>Ia&longs;ides nauim, currus regit arte Meti&longs;cus: <lb/>Fo&longs;&longs;or opus peragit nec minus arte &longs;uum.</s>

<s>Indagat uenæ &longs;pacium, numerum&queacute;, modum&queacute;, <lb/>Siue obliqua &longs;uum, rectaúe tendatiter.</s>

<s>Pa&longs;tor ut explorat quæ terra &longs;it apta colenti, <lb/>Quæ bene lanigeras, quæ malè pa&longs;cat oucs.</s>

<s>En terræ intentus, quid uincula linea tendit? <lb/>Fungitur officio iam Ptolemæe tuo.</s>

<s>Vt&queacute; &longs;uæ inuenit men&longs;uram iura&queacute; uenæ, <lb/>In uarios operas diuidit ind e uiros.</s>

<s>Iam&queacute; aggre&longs;&longs;us opus, uiden' ut mouet omne quod ob&longs;tat, <lb/>A&longs;&longs;idua ut uer&longs;at &longs;trenuus arma manu?</s>

<s>Ne tibi &longs;urde&longs;cant ferri tinnitibus aures, <lb/>Ad grauiora ideo con&longs;picienda ueni.</s>

<s>In&longs;truit ecce &longs;uis nunc artibus ille minores: <lb/>Sedulitas nulli non opero&longs;a loco.</s>

<s>Metiri docet hic uenæ &longs;pacium&queacute; modum&queacute;, <lb/>Vt&queacute; regat po&longs;itis &longs;inibus arua lapis,</s>

<s>Ne quis transmi&longs;&longs;o uiolentus limite pergens, <lb/>Non &longs;ibi conce&longs;&longs;as, in &longs;ua uertat, opes.</s>

<s>Hic docet in&longs;trumenta, quibus Piutonia regna <lb/>Tutus adit, &longs;axi permeat atque uias.</s>

<s>Quanta (uides) &longs;olidas expugnet machina terras: <lb/>Machina non ullo tempore ui&longs;a prius.</s>

<s>Cede nouis, nulla non inclyta laude uetu&longs;tas, <lb/>Po&longs;teritas meritis e&longs;t quoque grata tuis.</s>

<s>Tum quia Germano &longs;unt hæc inuenta &longs;ub axe, <lb/>Si quis es, inuidiæ contrahe uela tuæ.</s>

<s>Au&longs;onis ora tumct bellis, terra Attica cultu, <lb/>Germanum in&longs;ractus tollit ad a&longs;tra labor.</s>

<s>Nec tamen ingenio &longs;olet infeliciter uti, <lb/>Mite gerát Ph&oelig;bi, &longs;eu graue Martis opus.</s>

<s>Tempus ade&longs;t, &longs;tructis uenarum montibus, igne <lb/>Explorare, u&longs;um quem &longs;ibi uena ferat.</s>

<s>Non labor ingenio caret hic, non copia fructu, <lb/>E&longs;t adaperta bonæ prima fene&longs;tra &longs;pei.</s>

<s>Ergo in&longs;tat porrò grauiores ferre labores, <lb/>Intentas operi nec remouere manus.</s>

<s>Vrere &longs;iue locus po&longs;cat, &longs;eu tundere uenas, <lb/>Siue lauare lacu præter euntis aquæ.</s>

<s>Seu flammis iterum modicis torrere nece&longs;&longs;e e&longs;t, <lb/>Excoquere aut fa&longs;tis ignibus omne malum,</s>

<s>Cùm fluit æs riuis, auri argenti&queacute; metallum, <lb/>Spes animo fo&longs;&longs;or uix capit ip&longs;e &longs;uas.</s>

<s>Argentum cupidus fuluo &longs;ecernit ab auro, <lb/>Et plumbi lentam demit utrique moram.</s>

<s>Separat argentum, lucri &longs;tudio&longs;us, ab ære, <lb/>Seruatis, linquens deteriora, bonis.</s>

<s>Quæ &longs;i cuncta uelim tenui percurrere uer&longs;u, <lb/>Ante alium reuehat Memnonis o<gap/>ra diem.</s>

<s>Po&longs;tremus labor e&longs;t, concretos di&longs;cere&longs;uccos, <lb/>Quos fert innumeris Teutona terra locis.</s>

<s>Quo &longs;al, quo nitrum, quo pacto fiat alumen, <lb/>V&longs;ibus arti&longs;icis cùm parat illa manus:</s>

<s>Necnon chalcantum, &longs;ulfur, fluidumque bitumen, <lb/>Ma&longs;&longs;a&queacute; quo uitri lenta dolanda modo.</s>

<s>Su&longs;cipit hæc hominum mirandos cura labores, <lb/>Pauperiem u&longs;queadeo ferre famem&queacute; graue e&longs;t,</s>

<s>Tantus amor uictum paruis extundere natis, <lb/>Et patriæ ciuem non dare uelle malum.</s>

<s>Nec manet in terræ fo&longs;&longs;oris mer&longs;a latebris <lb/>Mens, &longs;ed fert domino uota preces&queacute; Deo.</s>

<s>Munificæ expectat, &longs;pe plenus, munera dextræ, <lb/>Extollens animum lætus ad a&longs;tra &longs;uum.</s>

<s>Diuitias CHRISTVS dat noticiam&queacute; fruendi, <lb/>Cui memori grates pectore &longs;emper agit.</s>

<s>Hoc quoque laudati quondam fecere Philippi, <lb/>Qui uirtutis habent cum pietate decus.</s>

<s>Huc oculos, huc flecte animum, &longs;uaui&longs;&longs;ime Lector, <lb/>Auctorem&queacute; pia no&longs;cito mente Deum.</s>

<s>AGRICOLAE hinc optans opero&longs;o fau&longs;ta labori, <lb/>Laudibus eximij candidus e&longs;to uiri.</s>

<s>Ille &longs;uum extollit patriæ cum nomine nomen, <lb/>Et uir in ore frequens po&longs;teritatis erit.</s>

<s>Cuncta cadunt letho, &longs;tudij monumenta uigebunt, <lb/>Purpurei doneclumina &longs;olis erunt.</s>

<s>Mi&longs;enæ M. D. LI.</s>

<s>èludo illu&longs;tri.</s>

<s>For completeness' sake we reproduce in the original Latin the laudation of Agricola <lb/>by his friend, Georgius Fabricius, a leading scholar of his time. It has but little intrinsic <lb/>value for it is not poetry of a very high order, and to make it acceptable English would require <lb/>certain improvements, for which only poets have license. A “free” translation of the last <lb/>few lines indicates its complimentary character:—</s>

<s>“He doth raise his country's fame with his own <lb/>And in the mouths of nations yet unborn <lb/>His praises shall be sung; Death comes to all <lb/>But great achievements raise a monument <lb/>Which shall endure until the sun grows cold.”</s>

<pb/>

<s>TO THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS <lb/>AND MOST MIGHTY DUKES OF <lb/>Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Margraves of Meissen, <lb/>Imperial Overlords of Saxony, Burgraves of Altenberg <lb/>and Magdeburg, Counts of Brena, Lords of <lb/>Pleissnerland, To MAURICE Grand Marshall <lb/>and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire <lb/>and to his brother AUGUSTUS,<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>GEORGE AGRICOLA S. D.</s>

<s>Most illustrious Princes, often have I considered <lb/>the metallic arts as a whole, as Moderatus Columella<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>considered the agricultural arts, just as if I <lb/>had been considering the whole of the human <lb/>body; and when I had perceived the various parts <lb/>of the subject, like so many members of the body, <lb/>I became afraid that I might die before I should <lb/>understand its full extent, much less before I <lb/>could immortalise it in writing. This book <lb/>itself indicates the length and breadth of the subject, and the number <lb/>and importance of the sciences of which at least some little knowledge <lb/>is necessary to miners. Indeed, the subject of mining is a very exten<lb/>sive one, and one very difficult to explain; no part of it is fully dealt <lb/>with by the Greek and Latin authors whose works survive; and since <lb/>the art is one of the most ancient, the most necessary and the most profitable <lb/>to mankind, I considered that I ought not to neglect it. Without doubt, <lb/>none of the arts is older than agriculture, but that of the metals is not <lb/>less ancient; in fact they are at least equal and coeval, for no mortal man ever <lb/>tilled a field without implements. In truth, in all the works of agricul<lb/>ture, as in the other arts, implements are used which are made from metals, <lb/>or which could not be made without the use of metals; for this reason <lb/>the metals are of the greatest necessity to man. When an art is so poor that <lb/>it lacks metals, it is not of much importance, for nothing is made without <lb/>tools. Besides, of all ways whereby great wealth is acquired by good and <lb/>honest means, none is more advantageous than mining; for although from <lb/>fields which are well tilled (not to mention other things) we derive rich yields, <lb/>yet we obtain richer products from mines; in fact, one mine is often much <lb/>more beneficial to us than many fields. For this reason we learn from the <lb/>history of nearly all ages that very many men have been made rich by the <lb/>

<pb pagenum="xxvi"/>mines, and the fortunes of many kings have been much amplified there<lb/>by. But I will not now speak more of these matters, because I have <lb/>dealt with these subjects partly in the first book of this work, and partly in <lb/>the other work entitled <emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"/> where I have refuted <lb/>the charges which have been made against metals and against miners. <lb/>Now, though the art of husbandry, which I willingly rank with the art of <lb/>mining, appears to be divided into many branches, yet it is not separated <lb/>into so many as this art of ours, nor can I teach the principles of this as <lb/>easily as Columella did of that. He had at hand many writers upon hus<lb/>bandry whom he could follow,—in fact, there are more than fifty Greek <lb/>authors whom Marcus Varro enumerates, and more than ten Latin ones, <lb/>whom Columella himself mentions. I have only one whom I can follow; <lb/>that is C. Plinius Secundus,<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/> and he expounds only a very few methods of <lb/>digging ores and of making metals. Far from the whole of the art having <lb/>been treated by any one writer, those who have written occasionally on any <lb/>one or another of its branches have not even dealt completely with a single <lb/>one of them. Moreover, there is a great scarcity even of these, since alone of <lb/>all the Greeks, Strato of Lampsacus,<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> the successor of Theophrastus,<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> wrote <lb/>a book on the subject, <emph type="italics"/>De Machinis Metallicis;<emph.end type="italics"/> except, perhaps a work by the <lb/>poet Philo, a small part of which embraced to some degree the occupation <lb/>of mining.<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> Pherecrates seems to have introduced into his comedy, which <lb/>was similar in title, miners as slaves or as persons condemned to serve in the <lb/>mines. Of the Latin writers, Pliny, as I have already said, has described <lb/>a few methods of working. Also among the authors I must include the modern <lb/>writers, whosoever they are, for no one should escape just condemnation <lb/>who fails to award due recognition to persons whose writings he uses, even <lb/>very slightly. Two books have been written in our tongue; the one on the <lb/>assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author <lb/>is unknown<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>; the other “On Veins,” of which Pandulfus Anglus<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> is also <lb/>said to have written, although the German book was written by Calbus of <lb/>Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="xxvii"/>he had begun.<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> Recently Vannucci Biringuccio, of Sienna, a wise man <lb/>experienced in many matters, wrote in vernacular Italian on the <lb/>subject of the melting, separating, and alloying of metals.<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> He <lb/>touched briefly on the methods of smelting certain ores, and explained <lb/>more fully the methods of making certain juices; by reading his <lb/>directions, I have refreshed my memory of those things which I myself <lb/>saw in Italy; as for many matters on which I write, he did not touch upon <lb/>them at all, or touched but lightly. This book was given me by Franciscus <lb/>Badoarius, a Patrician of Venice, and a man of wisdom and of repute; this <lb/>he had promised that he would do, when in the previous year he was at <lb/>Marienberg, having been sent by the Venetians as an Ambassador to King <lb/>Ferdinand. Beyond these books I do not find any writings on the metallic <lb/>arts. For that reason, even if the book of Strato existed, from all these <lb/>sources not one-half of the whole body of the science of mining could be <lb/>pieced together.</s>

<s>Seeing that there have been so few who have written on the subject of the <lb/>metals, it appears to me all the more wonderful that so many alchemists have <lb/>arisen who would compound metals artificially, and who would change one <lb/>into another. Hermolaus Barbarus,<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> a man of high rank and station, and <lb/>distinguished in all kinds of learning, has mentioned the names of many in <lb/>his writings; and I will proffer more, but only famous ones, for I will limit myself <lb/>to a few. Thus Osthanes has written on <foreign lang="greek">xumeutika/;</foreign> and there are Hermes; <lb/>Chanes; Zosimus, the Alexandrian, to his sister Theosebia; Olympiodorus, <lb/>also an Alexandrian; Agathodæmon; Democritus, not the one of Abdera, <lb/>but some other whom I know not; Orus Chrysorichites, Pebichius, Comerius, <lb/>Joannes, Apulejus, Petasius, Pelagius, Africanus, Theophilus, Synesius, <lb/>Stephanus to Heracleus Cæsar, Heliodorus to Theodosius, Geber, Callides <lb/>Rachaidibus, Veradianus, Rodianus, Canides, Merlin, Raymond Lully, <lb/>Arnold de Villa Nova, and Augustinus Pantheus of Venice; and three women, <lb/>Cleopatra, the maiden Taphnutia, and Maria the Jewess.<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> All these alchemists <lb/>employ obscure language, and Johanes Aurelius Augurellus of Rimini, <lb/>alone has used the language of poetry. There are many other books on <lb/><lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="xxviii"/>this subject, but all are difficult to follow, because the writers upon these <lb/>things use strange names, which do not properly belong to the metals, and <lb/>because some of them employ now one name and now another, invented by <lb/>themselves, though the thing itself changes not. These masters teach their <lb/>disciples that the base metals, when smelted, are broken up; also they teach <lb/>the methods by which they reduce them to the primary parts and <lb/>remove whatever is superfluous in them, and by supplying what is <lb/>wanted make out of them the precious metals—that is, gold and silver,— <lb/>all of which they carry out in a crucible. Whether they can do these things <lb/>or not I cannot decide; but, seeing that so many writers assure us with all <lb/>earnestness that they have reached that goal for which they aimed, it would <lb/>seem that faith might be placed in them; yet also seeing that we do not <lb/>read of any of them ever having become rich by this art, nor do we now see <lb/>them growing rich, although so many nations everywhere have produced, and <lb/>are producing, alchemists, and all of them are straining every nerve night and <lb/>day to the end that they may heap a great quantity of gold and silver, I should <lb/>say the matter is dubious. But although it may be due to the carelessness <lb/>of the writers that they have not transmitted to us the names of the masters <lb/>who acquired great wealth through this occupation, certainly it is clear that <lb/>their disciples either do not understand their precepts or, if they do under<lb/>stand them, do not follow them; for if they do comprehend them, seeing that <lb/>these disciples have been and are so numerous, they would have by to-day filled

<pb pagenum="xxix"/>whole towns with gold and silver. Even their books proclaim their vanity, for <lb/>they inscribe in them the names of Plato and Aristotle and other philosophers, <lb/>in order that such high-sounding inscriptions may impose upon simple people <lb/>and pass for learning. There is another class of alchemists who do not <lb/>change the substance of base metals, but colour them to represent gold or silver, <lb/>so that they appear to be that which they are not, and when this appearance <lb/>is taken from them by the fire, as if it were a garment foreign to them, they <lb/>return to their own character. These alchemists, since they deceive people, <lb/>are not only held in the greatest odium, but their frauds are a capital offence. <lb/>No less a fraud, warranting capital punishment, is committed by a third sort <lb/>of alchemists; these throw into a crucible a small piece of gold or silver <lb/>hidden in a coal, and after mixing therewith fluxes which have the power of <lb/>extracting it, pretend to be making gold from orpiment, or silver from tin and <lb/>like substances. But concerning the art of alchemy, if it be an art, I will <lb/>speak further elsewhere. I will now return to the art of mining.</s>

<s>Since no authors have written of this art in its entirety, and since <lb/>foreign nations and races do not understand our tongue, and, if they did <lb/>understand it, would be able to learn only a small part of the art through the <lb/>works of those authors whom we do possess, I have written these twelve books <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/> Of these, the first book contains the arguments which may <lb/>be used against this art, and against metals and the mines, and what can be <lb/>said in their favour. The second book describes the miner, and branches into

<pb pagenum="xxx"/>a discourse on the finding of veins. The third book deals with veins and <lb/>stringers, and seams in the rocks. The fourth book explains the method of <lb/>delimiting veins, and also describes the functions of the mining officials. <lb/>The fifth book describes the digging of ore and the surveyor's art. The <lb/>sixth book describes the miners' tools and machines. The seventh book is <lb/>on the assaying of ore. The eighth book lays down the rules for the work of <lb/>roasting, crushing, and washing the ore. The ninth book explains the <lb/>methods of smelting ores. The tenth book instructs those who are studious <lb/>of the metallic arts in the work of separating silver from gold, and lead from <lb/>gold and silver. The eleventh book shows the way of separating silver from <lb/>copper. The twelfth book gives us rules for manufacturing salt, soda, alum, <lb/>vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass.</s>

<s>Although I have not fulfilled the task which I have undertaken, on account <lb/>of the great magnitude of the subject, I have, at all events, endeavoured to fulfil <lb/>it, for I have devoted much labour and care, and have even gone to some <lb/>expense upon it; for with regard to the veins, tools, vessels, sluices, machines, <lb/>and furnaces, I have not only described them, but have also hired illustrators <lb/>to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed by words <lb/>should either not be understood by men of our own times, or should cause <lb/>difficulty to posterity, in the same way as to us difficulty is often caused by <lb/>many names which the Ancients (because such words were familiar to all of <lb/>them) have handed down to us without any explanation.</s>

<s>I have omitted all those things which I have not myself seen, or have

<pb pagenum="xxxi"/>not read or heard of from persons upon whom I can rely. That which I have <lb/>neither seen, nor carefully considered after reading or hearing of, I have not <lb/>written about. The same rule must be understood with regard to all my in<lb/>struction, whether I enjoin things which ought to be done, or describe things <lb/>which are usual, or condemn things which are done. Since the art of mining <lb/>does not lend itself to elegant language, these books of mine are correspond<lb/>ingly lacking in refinement of style. The things dealt with in this art of <lb/>metals sometimes lack names, either because they are new, or because, even <lb/>if they are old, the record of the names by which they were formerly known <lb/>has been lost. For this reason I have been forced by a necessity, for which I <lb/>must be pardoned, to describe some of them by a number of words combined, <lb/>and to distinguish others by new names,—to which latter class belong <emph type="italics"/>Ingestor, <lb/>Discretor, Lotor,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Excoctor.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> Other things, again, I have alluded to by old <lb/>names, such as the <emph type="italics"/>Cisium;<emph.end type="italics"/> for when Nonius Marcellus wrote,<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> this was <lb/>the name of a two-wheeled vehicle, but I have adopted it for a small vehicle <lb/>which has only one wheel; and if anyone does not approve of these names, <lb/>let him either find more appropriate ones for these things, or discover the <lb/>words used in the writings of the Ancients.</s>

<s>These books, most illustrious Princes, are dedicated to you for many <lb/>reasons, and, above all others, because metals have proved of the greatest <lb/>value to you; for though your ancestors drew rich profits from the revenues <lb/>of their vast and wealthy territories, and likewise from the taxes which were <lb/>paid by the foreigners by way of toll and by the natives by way of tithes, yet <lb/>they drew far richer profits from the mines. Because of the mines not a few <lb/>towns have risen into eminence, such as Freiberg, Annaberg, Marienberg, <lb/>Schneeberg, Geyer, and Altenberg, not to mention others. Nay, if I under<lb/>stand anything, greater wealth now lies hidden beneath the ground in the <lb/>mountainous parts of your territory than is visible and apparent above <lb/>ground. Farewell.</s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Chemnitz, Saxony,<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>December First,<emph.end type="italics"/> 1550.<lb/></s>

<pb/>

<s>Many persons hold the opinion that the metal indus<lb/>tries are fortuitous and that the occupation is one <lb/>of sordid toil, and altogether a kind of business <lb/>requiring not so much skill as labour. But as for <lb/>myself, when I reflect carefully upon its special <lb/>points one by one, it appears to be far otherwise. <lb/>For a miner must have the greatest skill in his <lb/>work, that he may know first of all what mountain <lb/>or hill, what valley or plain, can be prospected most <lb/>profitably, or what he should leave alone; moreover, he must understand the <lb/>veins, stringers<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> and seams in the rocks<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>. Then he must be thoroughly <lb/>familiar with the many and varied species of earths, juices<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>, gems, <lb/>stones, marbles, rocks, metals, and compounds<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>. He must also have a <lb/><lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="2"/>complete knowledge of the method of making all underground works<gap/><lb/>Lastly, there are the various systems of assaying<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> substances and o<gap/><lb/>preparing them for smelting; and here again there are many altogether<gap/><lb/>diverse methods. For there is one method for gold and silver, another<gap/><lb/>for copper, another for quicksilver, another for iron, another for lead, and<gap/>

<pb pagenum="3"/>even tin and bismuth<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> are treated differently from lead. Although the <lb/>evaporation of juices is an art apparently quite distinct from metallurgy, <lb/>yet they ought not to be considered separately, inasmuch as these juices <lb/>are also often dug out of the ground solidified, or they are produced from <lb/>certain kinds of earth and stones which the miners dig up, and some of the <lb/>juices are not themselves devoid of metals. Again, their treatment is not <lb/>simple, since there is one method for common salt, another for soda<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>, <lb/>another for alum, another for vitriol<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>, another for sulphur, and another <lb/>for bitumen.</s>

<s>Furthermore, there are many arts and sciences of which a miner should <lb/>not be ignorant. First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the origin, <lb/>cause, and nature of subterranean things; for then he will be able to dig <lb/>out the veins easily and advantageously, and to obtain more abundant results <lb/>from his mining. Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to look <lb/>after his diggers and other workmen, that they do not meet with those <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="4"/>diseases to which they are more liable than workmen in other occupations, <lb/>or if they do meet with them, that he himself may be able to heal them or <lb/>may see that the doctors do so. Thirdly follows Astronomy, that he may <lb/>know the divisions of the heavens and from them judge the direction of <lb/>the veins. Fourthly, there is the science of Surveying that he may be able <lb/>to estimate how deep a shaft should be sunk to reach the tunnel which is <lb/>being driven to it, and to determine the limits and boundaries in these <lb/>workings, especially in depth. Fifthly, his knowledge of Arithmetical Science <lb/>should be such that he may calculate the cost to be incurred in the <lb/>machinery and the working of the mine. Sixthly, his learning must comprise <lb/>Architecture, that he himself may construct the various machines and timber <lb/>work required underground, or that he may be able to explain the method <lb/>of the construction to others. Next, he must have knowledge of Drawing, <lb/>that he can draw plans of his machinery. Lastly, there is the Law, especially <lb/>that dealing with metals, that he may claim his own rights, that he may <lb/>undertake the duty of giving others his opinion on legal matters, that he <lb/>may not take another man's property and so make trouble for himself, and <lb/>that he may fulfil his obligations to others according to the law.</s>

<s>It is therefore necessary that those who take an interest in the methods <lb/>and precepts of mining and metallurgy should read these and others of our <lb/>books studiously and diligently; or on every point they should consult <lb/>expert mining people, though they will discover few who are skilled in the <lb/>whole art. As a rule one man understands only the methods of mining, <lb/>another possesses the knowledge of washing<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>, another is experienced in the <lb/>art of smelting, another has a knowledge of measuring the hidden parts of <lb/>the earth, another is skilful in the art of making machines, and finally, <lb/>another is learned in mining law. But as for us, though we may not have <lb/>perfected the whole art of the discovery and preparation of metals, at least <lb/>we can be of great assistance to persons studious in its acquisition.</s>

<s>But let us now approach the subject we have undertaken. Since there <lb/>has always been the greatest disagreement amongst men concerning metals <lb/>and mining, some praising, others utterly condemning them, therefore I have <lb/>decided that before imparting my instruction, I should carefully weigh <lb/>the facts with a view to discovering the truth in this matter.</s>

<s>So I may begin with the question of utility, which is a two-fold one, <lb/>for either it may be asked whether the art of mining is really profitable or <lb/>not to those who are engaged in it, or whether it is useful or not to the rest <lb/>of mankind. Those who think mining of no advantage to the men who follow <lb/>the occupation assert, first, that scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals or <lb/>other such things derive profit therefrom; and again, that miners, because they <lb/>entrust their certain and well-established wealth to dubious and slippery <lb/>fortune, generally deceive themselves, and as a result, impoverished by

<pb pagenum="5"/>expenses and losses, in the end spend the most bitter and most miserable of <lb/>lives. But persons who hold these views do not perceive how much a learned <lb/>and experienced miner differs from one ignorant and unskilled in the art. <lb/>The latter digs out the ore without any careful discrimination, while the <lb/>former first assays and proves it, and when he finds the veins either too <lb/>narrow and hard, or too wide and soft, he infers therefrom that these cannot <lb/>be mined profitably, and so works only the approved ones. What wonder <lb/>then if we find the incompetent miner suffers loss, while the competent one <lb/>is rewarded by an abundant return from his mining? The same thing <lb/>applies to husbandmen. For those who cultivate land which is alike arid, <lb/>heavy, and barren, and in which they sow seeds, do not make so great a <lb/>harvest as those who cultivate a fertile and mellow soil and sow their grain <lb/>in that. And since by far the greater number of miners are unskilled rather <lb/>than skilled in the art, it follows that mining is a profitable occupation to <lb/>very few men, and a source of loss to many more. Therefore the mass of <lb/>miners who are quite unskilled and ignorant in the knowledge of veins not <lb/>infrequently lose both time and trouble<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>. Such men are accustomed for the <lb/>most part to take to mining, either when through being weighted with the <lb/>fetters of large and heavy debts, they have abandoned a business, or desiring to <lb/>change their occupation, have left the reaping-hook and plough; and so <lb/>if at any time such a man discovers rich veins or other abounding mining <lb/>produce, this occurs more by good luck than through any knowledge on his <lb/>part. We learn from history that mining has brought wealth to many, for <lb/>from old writings it is well known that prosperous Republics, not a few kings, <lb/>and many private persons, have made fortunes through mines and their <lb/>produce. This subject, by the use of many clear and illustrious examples, I <lb/>have dilated upon and explained in the first Book of my work entitled “<emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Veteribus et Novis Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"/>” from which it is evident that mining is very <lb/>profitable to those who give it care and attention.</s>

<s>Again, those who condemn the mining industry say that it is not in the <lb/>least stable, and they glorify agriculture beyond measure. But I do not see <lb/>how they can say this with truth, for the silver-mines at Freiberg in Meissen <lb/>remain still unexhausted after 400 years, and the lead mines of Goslar after 600 <lb/>years. The proof of this can be found in the monuments of history. The <lb/>gold and silver mines belonging to the communities of Schemnitz and <lb/>Cremnitz have been worked for 800 years, and these latter are said to be <lb/>the most ancient privileges of the inhabitants. Some then say the profit <lb/>from an individual mine is unstable, as if forsooth, the miner is, or ought to <lb/>be dependent on only one mine, and as if many men do not bear in common <lb/>their expenses in mining, or as if one experienced in his art does not dig <lb/>another vein, if fortune does not amply respond to his prayers in the first <lb/>case. The New Schönberg at Freiberg has remained stable beyond the <lb/>memory of man<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s>

<s>It is not my intention to detract anything from the dignity of agri<lb/>culture, and that the profits of mining are less stable I will always and readly <lb/>admit, for the veins do in time cease to yield metals, whereas the fields bring <lb/>lorth fruits every year. But though the business of mining may be loss <lb/>reliable it is more productive, so that in reckoning up, what is wanting in <lb/>stability is found to be made up by productiveness. Indeed, the yearly <lb/>profit of a lead mine in comparison with the fruitfulness of the best fields, <lb/>is three times or at least twice as great. How much does the profit from <lb/>gold or silver mines exceed that earned from agriculture? Wherefore truly <lb/>and shrewdly does Xenophon<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> write about the Athenian silver mines: <lb/>“There is land of such a nature that if you sow, it does not yield crops, <lb/>but if you dig, it nourishes many more than if it had borne fruit.” So let <lb/>the farmers have for themselves the fruitful fields and cultivate the fertile <lb/>hills for the sake of their produce; but let them leave to miners the gloomy <lb/>valleys and sterile mountains, that they may draw forth from these, gens <lb/>and metals which can buy, not only the crops, but all things that are sold.</s>

<s>The critics say further that mining is a perilous occupation to pursue, <lb/>because the miners are sometimes killed by the pestilential air which they <lb/>breathe; sometimes their lungs rot away; sometimes the men perish by being <lb/>crushed in masses of rock; sometimes, falling from the ladders into the <lb/>shafts, they break their arms, legs, or necks; and it is added there is no com<lb/>pensation which should be thought great enough to equalize the extreme <lb/>dangers to safety and life. These occurrences, I confess, are of exceeding <lb/>gravity, and moreover, fraught with terror and peril, so that I should con<lb/>sider that the metals should not be dug up at all, if such things were to happen <lb/>very frequently to the miners, or if they could not safely guard against such <lb/>risks by any means. Who would not prefer to live rather than to possess <lb/>all things, even the metals? For he who thus perishes possesses nothing, <lb/>but relinquishes all to his heirs. But since things like this rarely happen, <lb/>and only in so far as workmen are careless, they do not deter miners from <lb/>carrying on their trade any more than it would deter a carpenter from his, <lb/>because one of his mates has acted incautiously and lost his life by falling <lb/>from a high building. I have thus answered each argument which critics are <lb/>wont to put before me when they assert that mining is an undesirable occuppa<lb/>tion, because it involves expense with uncertainty of return, because it is <lb/>changeable, and because it is dangerous to those engaged in it.</s>

<s>Now I come to those critics who say that mining is not useful to the <lb/>rest of mankind because forsooth, gems, metals, and other mineral products <lb/>are worthless in themselves. This admission they try to extort from us, <lb/>partly by arguments and examples, partly by misrepresentations and abuse of <lb/>us. First, they make use of this argument: “The earth does not conceal <lb/>and remove from our eyes those things which are useful and necessary to

<pb pagenum="7"/>mankind, but on the contrary, like a beneficent and kindly mother she yields <lb/>in large abundance from her bounty and brings into the light of day the <lb/>herbs, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and the trees. The minerals on the <lb/>other hand she buries far beneath in the depth of the ground; therefore, <lb/>they should not be sought. But they are dug out by wicked men who, as <lb/>the poets say, are the products of the Iron Age.” Ovid censures their <lb/>audacity in the following lines:—</s>

<s>“And not only was the rich soil required to furnish corn and due <lb/>sustenance, but men even descended into the entrails of the earth, and <lb/>they dug up riches, those incentives to vice, which the earth had hidden <lb/>and had removed to the Stygian shades. Then destructive iron came <lb/>forth, and gold, more destructive than iron; then war came forth.”<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>Another of their arguments is this: Metals offer to men no advantages, <lb/>therefore we ought not to search them out. For whereas man is composed <lb/>of soul and body, neither is in want of minerals. The sweetest food of the <lb/>soul is the contemplation of nature, a knowledge of the finest arts and sciences, <lb/>an understanding of virtue; and if he interests his mind in excellent things, <lb/>if he exercise his body, he will be satisfied with this feast of noble thoughts and <lb/>knowledge, and have no desire for other things. Now although the human <lb/>body may be content with necessary food and clothing, yet the fruits of the <lb/>earth and the animals of different kinds supply him in wonderful abundance <lb/>with food and drink, from which the body may be suitably nourished and <lb/>strengthened and life prolonged to old age. Flax, wool, and the skins of <lb/>many animals provide plentiful clothing low in price; while a luxurious kind, <lb/>not hard to procure—that is the so called <emph type="italics"/>seric<emph.end type="italics"/> material, is furnished by the <lb/>down of trees and the webs of the silk worm. So that the body has absolutely <lb/>no need of the metals, so hidden in the depths of the earth and for the greater <lb/>part very expensive. Wherefore it is said that this maxim of Euripides is <lb/>approved in assemblies of learned men, and with good reason was always on <lb/>the lips of Socrates:</s>

<s>“Works of silver and purple are of use, not for human life, but <lb/>rather for Tragedians.”<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>These critics praise also this saying from Timocreon of Rhodes:</s>

<s>“O Unseeing Plutus, would that thou hadst never appeared in the <lb/>earth or in the sea or on the land, but that thou didst have thy habita<lb/>tion in Tartarus and Acheron, for out of thee arise all evil things which <lb/>overtake mankind”<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s>

<s>They greatly extol these lines from Phocylides:</s>

<s>“Gold and silver are injurious to mortals; gold is the source of <lb/>crime, the plague of life, and the ruin of all things. Would that thou <lb/>were not such an attractive scourge! because of thee arise robberies, <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="8"/>homicides, warfare, brothers are maddened against brothers, a<gap/><lb/>children against parents.”</s>

<s>This from Naumachius also pleases them:</s>

<s>“Gold and silver are but dust, like the stones that lie scattered<gap/><lb/>the pebbly beach, or on the margins of the rivers.”</s>

<s>On the other hand, they censure these verses of Euripides:</s>

<s>“Plutus is the god for wise men: all else is mere folly and at t<gap/><lb/>same time a deception in words.”</s>

<s>So in like manner these lines from Theognis:</s>

<s>“O Plutus, thou most beautiful and placid god! whilst I have th<gap/><lb/>however bad I am, I can be regarded as good.”</s>

<s>They also blame Aristodemus, the Spartan, for these words:</s>

<s>“Money makes the man; no one who is poor is either good<gap/><lb/>honoured.”</s>

<s>And they rebuke these songs of Timocles:</s>

<s>“Money is the life and soul of mortal men. He who has n<gap/><lb/>heaped up riches for himself wanders like a dead man amongst t<gap/><lb/>living.”</s>

<s>Finally, they blame Menander when he wrote:</s>

<s>“Epicharmus asserts that the gods are water, wind, fire, earth, su<gap/><lb/>and stars. But I am of opinion that the gods of any use to us are silv<gap/><lb/>and gold; for if thou wilt set these up in thy house thou mayest se<gap/><lb/>whatever thou wilt. All things will fall to thy lot; land, houses, slav<gap/><lb/>silver-work; moreover friends, judges, and witnesses. Only give free<gap/><lb/>for thus thou hast the gods to serve thee.”</s>

<s>But besides this, the strongest argument of the detractors is that t<gap/><lb/>fields are devastated by mining operations, for which reason forme<gap/><lb/>Italians were warned by law that no one should dig the earth for metals a<gap/><lb/>so injure their very fertile fields, their vineyards, and their olive grov<gap/><lb/>Also they argue that the woods and groves are cut down, for there is need<gap/><lb/>an endless amount of wood for timbers, machines, and the smelting of meta<gap/><lb/>And when the woods and groves are felled, then are exterminated the bea<gap/><lb/>and birds, very many of which furnish a pleasant and agreeable food for ma<gap/><lb/>Further, when the ores are washed, the water which has been used pois<gap/><lb/>the brooks and streams, and either destroys the fish or drives them awa<gap/><lb/>Therefore the inhabitants of these regions, on account of the devastation<gap/><lb/>their fields, woods, groves, brooks and rivers, find great difficulty in procur<gap/><lb/>the necessaries of life, and by reason of the destruction of the timber th<gap/><lb/>are forced to greater expense in erecting buildings. Thus it is said, it<gap/><lb/>clear to all that there is greater detriment from mining than the value<gap/><lb/>the metals which the mining produces.</s>

<s>So in fierce contention they clamour, showing by such examples<gap/><lb/>follow that every great man has been content with virtue, and despis<gap/><lb/>metals. They praise Bias because he esteemed the metals mer<gap/><lb/>as fortune's playthings, not as his real wealth. When his enemies h<gap/><lb/>captured his native Priene, and his fellow-citizens laden with precious thin<gap/>

<pb pagenum="9"/>had betaken themselves to flight, he was asked by one, why he carried <lb/>away none of his goods with him, and he replied, “I carry all my possessions <lb/>with me.” And it is said that Socrates, having received twenty minae sent <lb/>to him by Aristippus, a grateful disciple, refused them and sent them back to <lb/>him by the command of his conscience. Aristippus, following his example <lb/>in this matter, despised gold and regarded it as of no value. And once <lb/>when he was making a journey with his slaves, and they, laden with the <lb/>gold, went too slowly, he ordered them to keep only as much of it as they <lb/>could carry without distress and to throw away the remainder<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>. Moreover, <lb/>Anacreon of Teos, an ancient and noble poet, because he had been troubled <lb/>about them for two nights, returned five talents which had been given him <lb/>by Polycrates, saying that they were not worth the anxiety which he had <lb/>gone through on their account. In like manner celebrated and exceedingly <lb/>powerful princes have imitated the philosophers in their scorn and contempt <lb/>for gold and silver. There was for example, Phocion, the Athenian, who was <lb/>appointed general of the army so many times, and who, when a large sum of gold <lb/>was sent to him as a gift by Alexander, King of Macedon, deemed it trifling and <lb/>scorned it. And Marcus Curius ordered the gold to be carried back to the <lb/>Samnites, as did also Fabricius Luscinus with regard to the silver and <lb/>copper. And certain Republics have forbidden their citizens the use and <lb/>employment of gold and silver by law and ordinance; the Lacedaemonians, <lb/>by the decrees and ordinances of Lycurgus, used diligently to enquire among <lb/>their citizens whether they possessed any of these things or not, and the <lb/>possessor, when he was caught, was punished according to law and justice. <lb/>The inhabitants of a town on the Tigris, called Babytace, buried their gold <lb/>in the ground so that no one should use it. The Scythians condemned the <lb/>use of gold and silver so that they might not become avaricious.</s>

<s>Further are the metals reviled; in the first place people wantonly <lb/>abuse gold and silver and call them deadly and nefarious pests of the human <lb/>race, because those who possess them are in the greatest peril, for those who <lb/>have none lay snares for the possessors of wealth, and thus again and again <lb/>the metals have been the cause of destruction and ruin. For example, <lb/>Polymnestor, King of Thrace, to obtain possession of his gold, killed Polydorus, <lb/>his noble guest and the son of Priam, his father-in-law, and old friend. <lb/>Pygmalion, the King of Tyre, in order that he might seize treasures of gold <lb/>and silver, killed his sister's husband, a priest, taking no account of either <lb/>kinship or religion. For love of gold Eriphyle betrayed her husband <lb/>Amphiaraus to his enemy. Likewise Lasthenes betrayed the city of <lb/>Olynthus to Philip of Macedon. The daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, having <lb/>been bribed with gold, admitted the Sabines into the citadel of Rome. <lb/>Claudius Curio sold his country for gold to Cæsar, the Dictator. Gold, too, <lb/>was the cause of the downfall of Aesculapius, the great physician, who it was <lb/>believed was the son of Apollo. Similarly Marcus Crassus, through his <lb/>eager desire for the gold of the Parthians, was completely overcome together <lb/>with his son and eleven legions, and became the jest of his enemies; for they

<pb pagenum="10"/>poured liquid gold into the gaping mouth of the slain Crassus, saying: <lb/>“Thou hast thirsted for gold, therefore drink gold.”</s>

<s>But why need I cite here these many examples from history?<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/> It is <lb/>almost our daily experience to learn that, for the sake of obtaining gold and <lb/>silver, doors are burst open, walls are pierced, wretched travellers are struck <lb/>down by rapacious and cruel men born to theft, sacrilege, invasion, and <lb/>robbery. We see thieves seized and strung up before us, sacrilegious persons <lb/>burnt alive, the limbs of robbers broken on the wheel, wars waged for the <lb/>same reason, which are not only destructive to those against whom they are <lb/>waged, but to those also who carry them on. Nay, but they say that the <lb/>precious metals foster all manner of vice, such as the seduction of women, <lb/>adultery, and unchastity, in short, crimes of violence against the person. <lb/>Therefore the Poets, when they represent Jove transformed into a golden <lb/>shower and falling into the lap of Danae, merely mean that he had found <lb/>for himself a safe road by the use of gold, by which he might enter the tower <lb/>for the purpose of violating the maiden. Moreover, the fidelity of many <lb/>men is overthrown by the love of gold and silver, judicial sentences are <lb/>bought, and innumerable crimes are perpetrated. For truly, as Propertius <lb/>says:</s>

<s>“This is indeed the Golden Age. The greatest rewards come from <lb/>gold; by gold love is won; by gold is faith destroyed; by gold is justice <lb/>bought; the law follows the track of gold, while modesty will soon <lb/>follow it when law is gone.”</s>

<s>Diphilus says:</s>

<s>“I consider that nothing is more powerful than gold. By it all <lb/>things are torn asunder; all things are accomplished.”</s>

<s>Therefore, all the noblest and best despise these riches, deservedly and <lb/>with justice, and esteem them as nothing. And this is said by the old man <lb/>in Plautus:</s>

<s>“I hate gold. It has often impelled many people to many wrong <lb/>acts.”</s>

<s>In this country too, the poets inveigh with stinging reproaches against money <lb/>coined from gold and silver. And especially did Juvenal:</s>

<s>“Since the majesty of wealth is the most sacred thing among us; <lb/>although, O pernicious money, thou dost not yet inhabit a temple, nor <lb/>have we erected altars to money.”</s>

<s>And in another place:</s>

<s>“Demoralising money first introduced foreign customs, and <lb/>voluptuous wealth weakened our race with disgraceful luxury.”<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>And very many vehemently praise the barter system which men used before <lb/>money was devised, and which even now obtains among certain simple <lb/>peoples.</s>

<s>And next they raise a great outcry against other metals, as iron, than <lb/>

<pb pagenum="11"/>which they say nothing more pernicious could have been brought into the <lb/>life of man. For it is employed in making swords, javelins, spears, pikes, <lb/>arrows—weapons by which men are wounded, and which cause slaughter, <lb/>robbery, and wars. These things so moved the wrath of Pliny that he wrote: <lb/>“Iron is used not only in hand to hand fighting, but also to form the winged <lb/>missiles of war, sometimes for hurling engines, sometimes for lances, some<lb/>times even for arrows. I look upon it as the most deadly fruit of human <lb/>ingenuity. For to bring Death to men more quickly we have given wings to <lb/>iron and taught it to fly.”<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/> The spear, the arrow from the bow, or the bolt <lb/>from the catapult and other engines can be driven into the body of only one <lb/>man, while the iron cannon-ball fired through the air, can go through the <lb/>bodies of many men, and there is no marble or stone object so hard that it <lb/>cannot be shattered by the force and shock. Therefore it levels the highest <lb/>towers to the ground, shatters and destroys the strongest walls. Certainly <lb/>the ballistas which throw stones, the battering rams and other ancient war <lb/>engines for making breaches in walls of fortresses and hurling down strong<lb/>holds, seem to have little power in comparison with our present cannon. <lb/>These emit horrible sounds and noises, not less than thunder, flashes <lb/>of fire burst from them like the lightning, striking, crushing, and shatter<lb/>ing buildings, belching forth flames and kindling fires even as lightning <lb/>flashes. So that with more justice could it be said of the impious men of <lb/>our age than of Salmoneus of ancient days, that they had snatched lightning <lb/>from Jupiter and wrested it from his hands. Nay, rather there has been <lb/>sent from the infernal regions to the earth this force for the destruction of <lb/>men, so that Death may snatch to himself as many as possible by one stroke.</s>

<s>But because muskets are nowadays rarely made of iron, and the large <lb/>ones never, but of a certain mixture of copper and tin, they confer more <lb/>maledictions on copper and tin than on iron. In this connection too, they <lb/>mention the brazen bull of Phalaris, the brazen ox of the people of Per<lb/>gamus, racks in the shape of an iron dog or a horse, manacles, shackles, <lb/>wedges, hooks, and red-hot plates. Cruelly racked by such instruments, <lb/>people are driven to confess crimes and misdeeds which they have never <lb/>committed, and innocent men are miserably tortured to death by every <lb/>conceivable kind of torment.</s>

<s>It is claimed too, that lead is a pestilential and noxious metal, for men <lb/>are punished by means of molten lead, as Horace describes in the ode <lb/>addressed to the Goddess Fortune: “Cruel Necessity ever goes before thee <lb/>bearing in her brazen hand the spikes and wedges, while the awful hook and <lb/>molten lead are also not lacking.”<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> In their desire to excite greater odium <lb/>for this metal, they are not silent about the leaden balls of muskets, and they <lb/>find in it the cause of wounds and death.</s>

<s>They contend that, inasmuch as Nature has concealed metals far within <lb/>the depths of the earth, and because they are not necessary to human life, <lb/>they are therefore despised and repudiated by the noblest, and should not be <lb/>

<pb pagenum="12"/>mined, and seeing that when brought to light they have always proved the <lb/>cause of very great evils, it follows that mining is not useful to mankind <lb/>but on the contrary harmful and destructive. Several good men have <lb/>been so perturbed by these tragedies that they conceive an intensely bitter <lb/>hatred toward metals, and they wish absolutely that metals had never been <lb/>created, or being created, that no one had ever dug them out. The more I <lb/>commend the singular honesty, innocence, and goodness of such men, the <lb/>more anxious shall I be to remove utterly and eradicate all error from their <lb/>minds and to reveal the sound view, which is that the metals are most useful <lb/>to mankind.</s>

<s>In the first place then, those who speak ill of the metals and refuse to <lb/>make use of them, do not see that they accuse and condemn as wicked the <lb/>Creator Himself, when they assert that He fashioned some things vainly <lb/>and without good cause, and thus they regard Him as the Author of evils <lb/>which opinion is certainly not worthy of pious and sensible men.</s>

<s>In the next place, the earth does not conceal metals in her depths <lb/>because she does not wish that men should dig them out, but because <lb/>provident and sagacious Nature has appointed for each thing its place. She <lb/>generates them in the veins, stringers, and seams in the rocks, as though <lb/>in special vessels and receptacles for such material. The metals cannot be <lb/>produced in the other elements because the materials for their formation <lb/>are wanting. For if they were generated in the air, a thing that rarely <lb/>happens, they could not find a firm resting-place, but by their own force and <lb/>weight would settle down on to the ground. Seeing then that metals have <lb/>their proper abiding place in the bowels of the earth, who does not see that <lb/>these men do not reach their conclusions by good logic?</s>

<s>They say, “Although metals are in the earth, each located in its own <lb/>proper place where it originated, yet because they lie thus enclosed and <lb/>hidden from sight, they should not be taken out.” But, in refutation of these <lb/>attacks, which are so annoying, I will on behalf of the metals instance the <lb/>fish, which we catch, hidden and concealed though they be in the water, even <lb/>in the sea. Indeed, it is far stranger that man, a terrestrial animal, should <lb/>search the interior of the sea than the bowels of the earth. For as birds are <lb/>born to fly freely through the air, so are fishes born to swim through the <lb/>waters, while to other creatures Nature has given the earth that they might <lb/>live in it, and particularly to man that he might cultivate it and draw out <lb/>of its caverns metals and other mineral products. On the other hand, they <lb/>say that we eat fish, but neither hunger nor thirst is dispelled by minerals, <lb/>nor are they useful in clothing the body, which is another argument by <lb/>which these people strive to prove that metals should not be taken out. But <lb/>man without metals cannot provide those things which he needs for food and <lb/>clothing. For, though the produce of the land furnishes the greatest <lb/>abundance of food for the nourishment of our bodies, no labour can be <lb/>carried on and completed without tools. The ground itself is turned up <lb/>with ploughshares and harrows, tough stalks and the tops of the roots are <lb/>broken off and dug up with a mattock, the sown seed is harrowed, the corn

<pb pagenum="13"/>field is hoed and weeded; the ripe grain with part of the stalk is cut down <lb/>by scythes and threshed on the floor, or its ears are cut off and stored in the <lb/>barn and later beaten with flails and winnowed with fans, until finally the <lb/>pure grain is stored in the granary, whence it is brought forth again when <lb/>occasion demands or necessity arises. Again, if we wish to procure better <lb/>and more productive fruits from trees and bushes, we must resort to <lb/>cultivating, pruning, and grafting, which cannot be done without tools. <lb/>Even as without vessels we cannot keep or hold liquids, such as milk, honey, <lb/>wine, or oil, neither could so many living things be cared for without <lb/>buildings to protect them from long-continued rain and intolerable cold. <lb/>Most of the rustic instruments are made of iron, as ploughshares, share<lb/>beams, mattocks, the prongs of harrows, hoes, planes, hay-forks, straw <lb/>cutters, pruning shears, pruning hooks, spades, lances, forks, and weed <lb/>cutters. Vessels are also made of copper or lead. Neither are wooden <lb/>instruments or vessels made without iron. Wine cellars, oil-mills, stables, <lb/>or any other part of a farm building could not be built without iron tools. <lb/>Then if the bull, the wether, the goat, or any other domestic animal is led <lb/>away from the pasture to the butcher, or if the poulterer brings from the farm <lb/>a chicken, a hen, or a capon for the cook, could any of these animals be cut <lb/>up and divided without axes and knives? I need say nothing here about <lb/>bronze and copper pots for cooking, because for these purposes one could <lb/>make use of earthen vessels, but even these in turn could not be made and <lb/>fashioned by the potter without tools, for no instruments can be made out <lb/>of wood alone, without the use of iron. Furthermore, hunting, fowling, and <lb/>fishing supply man with food, but when the stag has been ensnared does not <lb/>the hunter transfix him with his spear? As he stands or runs, does he not <lb/>pierce him with an arrow? Or pierce him with a bullet? Does not the <lb/>fowler in the same way kill the moor-fowl or pheasant with an arrow? Or <lb/>does he not discharge into its body the ball from the musket? I will not <lb/>speak of the snares and other instruments with which the woodcock, wood<lb/>pecker, and other wild birds are caught, lest I pursue unseasonably and too <lb/>minutely single instances. Lastly, with his fish-hook and net does not the <lb/>fisherman catch the fish in the sea, in the lakes, in fish-ponds, or in rivers? <lb/>But the hook is of iron, and sometimes we see lead or iron weights attached <lb/>to the net. And most fish that are caught are afterward cut up and dis<lb/>embowelled with knives and axes. But, more than enough has been said on <lb/>the matter of food.</s>

<s>Now I will speak of clothing, which is made out of wool, flax, feathers, <lb/>hair, fur, or leather. First the sheep are sheared, then the wool is combed. <lb/>Next the threads are drawn out, while later the warp is suspended in the <lb/>shuttle under which passes the wool. This being struck by the comb, at length <lb/>cloth is formed either from threads alone or from threads and hair. Flax, <lb/>when gathered, is first pulled by hooks. Then it is dipped in water and <lb/>afterward dried, beaten into tow with a heavy mallet, and carded, then <lb/>drawn out into threads, and finally woven into cloth. But has the artisan <lb/>or weaver of the cloth any instrument not made of iron? Can one be made

<pb pagenum="14"/>of wood without the aid of iron? The cloth or web must be cut into lengths <lb/>for the tailor. Can this be done without knife or scissors? Can the tailor <lb/>sew together any garments without a needle? Even peoples dwelling beyond <lb/>the seas cannot make a covering for their bodies, fashioned of feathers, <lb/>without these same implements. Neither can the furriers do without them <lb/>in sewing together the pelts of any kind of animals. The shoemaker needs <lb/>a knife to cut the leather, another to scrape it, and an awl to perforate it <lb/>before he can make shoes. These coverings for the body are either woven <lb/>or stitched. Buildings too, which protect the same body from rain, wind, <lb/>cold, and heat, are not constructed without axes, saws, and augers.</s>

<s>But what need of more words? If we remove metals from the service <lb/>of man, all methods of protecting and sustaining health and more care<lb/>fully preserving the course of life are done away with. If there were no <lb/>metals, men would pass a horrible and wretched existence in the midst of <lb/>wild beasts; they would return to the acorns and fruits and berries of the <lb/>forest. They would feed upon the herbs and roots which they plucked up <lb/>with their nails. They would dig out caves in which to lie down at night, <lb/>and by day they would rove in the woods and plains at random like beasts, <lb/>and inasmuch as this condition is utterly unworthy of humanity, with its <lb/>splendid and glorious natural endowment, will anyone be so foolish or <lb/>obstinate as not to allow that metals are necessary for food and clothing and <lb/>that they tend to preserve life?</s>

<s>Moreover, as the miners dig almost exclusively in mountains otherwise <lb/>unproductive, and in valleys invested in gloom, they do either slight damage <lb/>to the fields or none at all. Lastly, where woods and glades are cut down, <lb/>they may be sown with grain after they have been cleared from the roots of <lb/>shrubs and trees. These new fields soon produce rich crops, so that they repair <lb/>the losses which the inhabitants suffer from increased cost of timber. More<lb/>over, with the metals which are melted from the ore, birds without number, <lb/>edible beasts and fish can be purchased elsewhere and brought to these <lb/>mountainous regions.</s>

<s>I will pass to the illustrations I have mentioned. Bias of Priene, when his <lb/>country was taken, carried away out of the city none of his valuables. So <lb/>strong a man with such a reputation for wisdom had no need to fear personal <lb/>danger from the enemy, but this in truth cannot be said of him because he <lb/>hastily took to flight; the throwing away of his goods does not seem to me <lb/>so great a matter, for he had lost his house, his estates, and even his country, <lb/>than which nothing is more precious. Nay, I should be convinced of Bias's <lb/>contempt and scorn for possessions of this kind, if before his country was <lb/>captured he had bestowed them freely on relations and friends, or had <lb/>distributed them to the very poor, for this he could have done freely and <lb/>without question. Whereas his conduct, which the Greeks admire so <lb/>greatly, was due, it would seem, to his being driven out by the enemy and <lb/>stricken with fear. Socrates in truth did not despise gold, but would not <lb/>accept money for his teaching. As for Aristippus of Cyrene, if he had gath<lb/>ered and saved the gold which he ordered his slaves to throw away, he might

<pb pagenum="15"/>have bought the things which he needed for the necessaries of life, and he <lb/>would not. by reason of his poverty, have then been obliged to flatter the <lb/>tyrant Dionysius, nor would he ever have been called by him a King's dog. <lb/>For this reason Horace, speaking of Damasippus when reviling Staberus for <lb/>valuing riches very highly, says:</s>

<s>“What resemblance has the Grecian Aristippus to this fellow? <lb/>He who commanded his slaves to throw away the gold in the midst of <lb/>Libya because they went too slowly, impeded by the weight of their <lb/>burden—which of these two men is the more insane?”<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>Insane indeed is he who makes more of riches than of virtue. Insane <lb/>also is he who rejects them and considers them as worth nothing, instead of <lb/>using them with reason. Yet as to the gold which Aristippus on another <lb/>occasion flung into the sea from a boat, this he did with a wise and prudent <lb/>mind. For learning that it was a pirate boat in which he was sailing, and <lb/>fearing for his life, he counted his gold and then throwing it of his own will <lb/>into the sea, he groaned as if he had done it unwillingly. But afterward, <lb/>when he escaped the peril, he said: “It is better that this gold itself should <lb/>be lost than that I should have perished because of it.” Let it be granted <lb/>that some philosophers, as well as Anacreon of Teos, despised gold and <lb/>silver. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae also gave up his sheep-farms and <lb/>became a shepherd. Crates the Theban too, being annoyed that his <lb/>estate and other kinds of wealth caused him worry, and that in his con<lb/>templations his mind was thereby distracted, resigned a property valued at <lb/>ten talents, and taking a cloak and wallet, in poverty devoted all his <lb/>thought and efforts to philosophy. Is it true that because these philo<lb/>sophers despised money, all others declined wealth in cattle? Did they <lb/>refuse to cultivate lands or to dwell in houses? There were certainly many, <lb/>on the other hand, who, though affluent, became famous in the pursuit of <lb/>learning and in the knowledge of divine and human laws, such as Aristotle, <lb/>Cicero, and Seneca. As for Phocion, he did not deem it honest to accept the <lb/>gold sent to him by Alexander. For if he had consented to use it, the <lb/>king as much as himself would have incurred the hatred and aversion of <lb/>the Athenians, and these very people were afterward so ungrateful toward <lb/>this excellent man that they compelled him to drink hemlock. For what <lb/>would have been less becoming to Marcus Curius and Fabricius Luscinus <lb/>than to accept gold from their enemies, who hoped that by these means <lb/>those leaders could be corrupted or would become odious to their fellow <lb/>citizens, their purpose being to cause dissentions among the Romans and <lb/>destroy the Republic utterly. Lycurgus, however, ought to have given <lb/>instructions to the Spartans as to the use of gold and silver, instead of <lb/>abolishing things good in themselves. As to the Babytacenses, who does <lb/>not see that they were senseless and envious? For with their gold they might <lb/>have bought things of which they were in need, or even given it to neigh<lb/>bouring peoples to bind them more closely to themselves with gifts and <lb/>favours. Finally, the Scythians, by condemning the use of gold and silver

<pb pagenum="16"/>alone, did not free themselves utterly from avarice, because although he is not <lb/>enjoying them, one who can possess other forms of property may also <lb/>become avaricious.</s>

<s>Now let us reply to the attacks hurled against the products of mines. <lb/>In the first place, they call gold and silver the scourge of mankind because <lb/>they are the cause of destruction and ruin to their possessors. But in this <lb/>manner, might not anything that we possess be called a scourge to <lb/>human kind,—whether it be a horse, or a garment, or anything else? <lb/>For, whether one rides a splendid horse, or journeys well clad, he would <lb/>give occasion to a robber to kill him. Are we then not to ride on horses, <lb/>but to journey on foot, because a robber has once committed a murder in <lb/>order that he may steal a horse? Or are we not to possess clothing, because <lb/>a vagabond with a sword has taken a traveller's life that he may rob him <lb/>of his garment? The possession of gold and silver is similar. Seeing <lb/>then that men cannot conveniently do all these things, we should be on our <lb/>guard against robbers, and because we cannot always protect ourselves <lb/>from their hands, it is the special duty of the magistrate to seize wicked and <lb/>villainous men for torture, and, if need be, for execution.</s>

<s>Again, the products of the mines are not themselves the cause of war. <lb/>Thus, for example, when a tyrant, inflamed with passion for a woman of <lb/>great beauty, makes war on the inhabitants of her city, the fault lies in the <lb/>unbridled lust of the tyrant and not in the beauty of the woman. Likewise, <lb/>when another man, blinded by a passion for gold and silver, makes war <lb/>upon a wealthy people, we ought not to blame the metals but transfer all <lb/>blame to avarice. For frenzied deeds and disgraceful actions, which are <lb/>wont to weaken and dishonour natural and civil laws, originate from our <lb/>own vices. Wherefore Tibullus is wrong in laying the blame for war on <lb/>gold, when he says: “This is the fault of a rich man's gold; there were <lb/>no wars when beech goblets were used at banquets.” But Virgil, speaking of <lb/>Polymnestor, says that the crime of the murderer rests on avarice:</s>

<s>“He breaks all law; he murders Polydorus, and obtains gold by <lb/>violence. To what wilt thou not drive mortal hearts, thou accursed <lb/>hunger for gold?”</s>

<s>And again, justly, he says, speaking of Pygmalion, who killed Sichaeus:</s>

<s>“And blinded with the love of gold, he slew him unawares with <lb/>stealthy sword.”<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>For lust and eagerness after gold and other things make men blind, and <lb/>this wicked greed for money, all men in all times and places have considered <lb/>dishonourable and criminal. Moreover, those who have been so addicted to <lb/>avarice as to be its slaves have always been regarded as mean and sordid. <lb/>Similarly, too, if by means of gold and silver and gems men can overcome <lb/>the chastity of women, corrupt the honour of many people, bribe the course <lb/>of justice and commit innumerable wickednesses, it is not the metals which <lb/>are to be blamed, but the evil passions of men which become inflamed and <lb/>ignited; or it is due to the blind and impious desires of their minds. But

<pb pagenum="17"/>although these attacks against gold and silver may be directed especially <lb/>against money, yet inasmuch as the Poets one after another condemn it, <lb/>their criticism must be met, and this can be done by one argument alone. <lb/>Money is good for those who use it well; it brings loss and evil to those who <lb/>use it ill. Hence, very rightly, Horace says:</s>

<s>“Dost thou not know the value of money; and what uses it serves?</s>

<s>It buys bread, vegetables, and a pint of wine.”</s>

<s>And again in another place:</s>

<s>“Wealth hoarded up is the master or slave of each possessor; it <lb/>should follow rather than lead, the ‘twisted rope.’ ”<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>When ingenious and clever men considered carefully the system of barter, <lb/>which ignorant men of old employed and which even to-day is used by <lb/>certain uncivilised and barbarous races, it appeared to them so troublesome <lb/>and laborious that they invented money. Indeed, nothing more useful <lb/>could have been devised, because a small amount of gold and silver is of as <lb/>great value as things cumbrous and heavy; and so peoples far distant from one <lb/>another can, by the use of money, trade very easily in those things which <lb/>civilised life can scarcely do without.</s>

<s>The curses which are uttered against iron, copper, and lead have no <lb/>weight with prudent and sensible men, because if these metals were done <lb/>away with, men, as their anger swelled and their fury became unbridled, <lb/>would assuredly fight like wild beasts with fists, heels, nails, and teeth. <lb/>They would strike each other with sticks, hit one another with stones, or <lb/>dash their foes to the ground. Moreover, a man does not kill another with <lb/>iron alone, but slays by means of poison, starvation, or thirst. He may <lb/>seize him by the throat and strangle him; he may bury him alive in the <lb/>ground; he may immerse him in water and suffocate him; he may burn <lb/>or hang him; so that he can make every element a participant in the death <lb/>of men. Or, finally, a man may be thrown to the wild beasts. Another <lb/>may be sewn up wholly except his head in a sack, and thus be left to be <lb/>devoured by worms; or he may be immersed in water until he is torn to <lb/>pieces by sea-serpents. A man may be boiled in oil; he may be greased, <lb/>tied with ropes, and left exposed to be stung by flies and hornets; he may <lb/>be put to death by scourging with rods or beating with cudgels, or struck <lb/>down by stoning, or flung from a high place. Furthermore, a man <lb/>may be tortured in more ways than one without the use of metals; as when <lb/>the executioner burns the groins and armpits of his victim with hot wax; <lb/>or places a cloth in his mouth gradually, so that when in breathing he <lb/>draws it slowly into his gullet, the executioner draws it back suddenly and <lb/>violently; or the victim's hands are fastened behind his back, and he is <lb/>drawn up little by little with a rope and then let down suddenly. Or <lb/>similarly, he may be tied to a beam and a heavy stone fastened by a <lb/>cord to his feet, or finally his limbs may be torn asunder. From these <lb/>examples we see that it is not metals that are to be condemned, but our <lb/>vices, such as anger, cruelty, discord, passion for power, avarice, and lust.</s>

<s>The question next arises, whether we ought to count metals amongst <lb/>the number of good things or class them amongst the bad. The Peripatetics <lb/>regarded all wealth as a good thing, and merely spoke of externals as having <lb/>to do with neither the mind nor the body. Well, let riches be an external <lb/>thing. And, as they said, many other things may be classed as good if it is <lb/>in one's power to use them either well or ill. For good men employ them for <lb/>good, and to them they are useful. The wicked use them badly, and to <lb/>them they are harmful. There is a saying of Socrates, that just as wine <lb/>is influenced by the cask, so the character of riches is like their possessors. <lb/>The Stoics, whose custom it is to argue subtly and acutely, though they did <lb/>not put wealth in the category of good things, they did not count it amongst <lb/>the evil ones, but placed it in that class which they term neutral. For to <lb/>them virtue alone is good, and vice alone evil. The whole of what remains <lb/>is indifferent. Thus, in their conviction, it matters not whether one be in <lb/>good health or seriously ill; whether one be handsome or deformed. In <lb/>short:</s>

<s>“Whether, sprung from Inachus of old, and thus hast lived <lb/>beneath the sun in wealth, or hast been poor and despised among men, <lb/>it matters not.”</s>

<s>For my part, I see no reason why anything that is in itself of use should <lb/>not be placed in the class of good things. At all events, metals are a <lb/>creation of Nature, and they supply many varied and necessary needs of the <lb/>human race, to say nothing about their uses in adornment, which are so <lb/>wonderfully blended with utility. Therefore, it is not right to degrade them <lb/>from the place they hold among the good things. In truth, if there is a <lb/>bad use made of them, should they on that account be rightly called evils? <lb/>For of what good things can we not make an equally bad or good use? Let <lb/>me give examples from both classes of what we term good. Wine, by far <lb/>the best drink, if drunk in moderation, aids the digestion of food, helps to <lb/>produce blood, and promotes the juices in all parts of the body. It is of use <lb/>in nourishing not only the body but the mind as well, for it disperses our <lb/>dark and gloomy thoughts, frees us from cares and anxiety, and restores <lb/>our confidence. If drunk in excess, however, it injures and prostrates the <lb/>body with serious disease. An intoxicated man keeps nothing to himself; <lb/>he raves and rants, and commits many wicked and infamous acts. On <lb/>this subject Theognis wrote some very clever lines, which we may render <lb/>thus:</s>

<s>“Wine is harmful if taken with greedy lips, but if drunk in <lb/>moderation it is wholesome.”<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>But I linger too long over extraneous matters. I must pass on to the <lb/>gifts of body and mind, amongst which strength, beauty, and genius <lb/>occur to me. If then a man, relying on his strength, toils hard to maintain <lb/>himself and his family in an honest and respectable manner, he uses the <lb/>gift aright, but if he makes a living out of murder and robbery, he uses it <lb/>wrongly. Likewise, too, if a lovely woman is anxious to please her husband

<pb pagenum="19"/>alone she uses her beauty aright, but if she lives wantonly and is a victim <lb/>of passion, she misuses her beauty. In like manner, a youth who devotes <lb/>himself to learning and cultivates the liberal arts, uses his genius rightly. <lb/>But he who dissembles, lies, cheats, and deceives by fraud and dishonesty, <lb/>misuses his abilities. Now, the man who, because they are abused, denies that <lb/>wine, strength, beauty, or genius are good things, is unjust and blasphemous <lb/>towards the Most High God, Creator of the World; so he who would remove <lb/>metals from the class of blessings also acts unjustly and blasphemously <lb/>against Him. Very true, therefore, are the words which certain Greek <lb/>poets have written, as Pindar:</s>

<s>“Money glistens, adorned with virtue; it supplies the means by <lb/>which thou mayest act well in whatever circumstances fate may <lb/>have in store for thee.”<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>And Sappho:</s>

<s>“Without the love of virtue gold is a dangerous and harmful guest, <lb/>but when it is associated with virtue, it becomes the source and height <lb/>of good.”</s>

<s>And Callimachus:</s>

<s>“Riches do not make men great without virtue; neither do virtues <lb/>themselves make men great without some wealth.”</s>

<s>And Antiphanes:</s>

<s>“Now, by the gods, why is it necessary for a man to grow rich? <lb/>Why does he desire to possess much money unless that he may, as <lb/>much as possible, help his friends, and sow the seeds of a harvest of <lb/>gratitude, sweetest of the goddesses.”<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>Having thus refuted the arguments and contentions of adversaries, <lb/>let us sum up the advantages of the metals. In the first place, they are <lb/>useful to the physician, for they furnish liberally the ingredients for medi<lb/>cines, by which wounds and ulcers are cured, and even plagues; so that <lb/>certainly if there were no other reasons why we should explore the depths of <lb/>the earth, we should for the sake of medicine alone dig in the mines. Again, <lb/>the metals are of use to painters, because they yield certain pigments which, <lb/>when united with the painter's slip, are injured less than others by the moisture <lb/>from without. Further, mining is useful to the architects, for thus is found <lb/>marble, which is suitable not only for strengthening large buildings, but <lb/>also for decoration. It is, moreover, helpful to those whose ambition urges <lb/>them toward immortal glory, because it yields metals from which are made <lb/>coins, statues, and other monuments, which, next to literary records, give men <lb/>in a sense immortality. The metals are useful to merchants with very great cause, <lb/>for, as I have stated elsewhere, the use of money which is made from metals is <lb/>much more convenient to mankind than the old system of exchange of commodi<lb/>ties. In short, to whom are the metals not of use? In very truth, even the works <lb/>of art, elegant, embellished, elaborate, useful, are fashioned in various shapes by <lb/>the artist from the metals gold, silver, brass, lead, and iron. How few artists <lb/>

<pb pagenum="20"/>could make anything that is beautiful and perfect without using metals? Ev<gap/><lb/>if tools of iron or brass were not used, we could not make tools of wood a<gap/><lb/>stone without the help of metal. From all these examples are evident t<gap/><lb/>benefits and advantages derived from metals. We should not have ha<gap/><lb/>these at all unless the science of mining and metallurgy had been discovere<gap/><lb/>and handed down to us. Who then does not understand how highly usef<gap/><lb/>they are, nay rather, how necessary to the human race? In a word, ma<gap/><lb/>could not do without the mining industry, nor did Divine Providence wi<gap/><lb/>that he should.</s>

<s>Further, it has been asked whether to work in metals is honourab<gap/><lb/>employment for respectable people or whether it is not degrading an<gap/><lb/>dishonourable. We ourselves count it amongst the honourable arts. Fo<gap/><lb/>that art, the pursuit of which is unquestionably not impious, nor offensive<gap/><lb/>nor mean, we may esteem honourable. That this is the nature of th<gap/><lb/>mining profession, inasmuch as it promotes wealth by good and hones<gap/><lb/>methods, we shall show presently. With justice, therefore, we may clas<gap/><lb/>it amongst honourable employments. In the first place, the occupatio<gap/><lb/>of the miner, which I must be allowed to compare with other methods o<gap/><lb/>acquiring great wealth, is just as noble as that of agriculture; for, as th<gap/><lb/>farmer, sowing his seed in his fields injures no one, however profitable they<gap/><lb/>may prove to him, so the miner digging for his metals, albeit he draws forth<gap/><lb/>great heaps of gold or silver, hurts thereby no mortal man. Certainly these<gap/><lb/>two modes of increasing wealth are in the highest degree both noble and<gap/><lb/>honourable. The booty of the soldier, however, is frequently impious,<gap/><lb/>because in the fury of the fighting he seizes all goods, sacred as well as<gap/><lb/>profane. The most just king may have to declare war on cruel tyrants, <lb/>but in the course of it wicked men cannot lose their wealth and possessions <lb/>without dragging into the same calamity innocent and poor people, old <lb/>men, matrons, maidens, and orphans. But the miner is able to accumu<lb/>late great riches in a short time, without using any violence, fraud, o<gap/><lb/>malice. That old saying is, therefore, not always true that “Every rich <lb/>man is either wicked himself, or is the heir to wickedness.”</s>

<s>Some, however, who contend against us, censure and attack miners by <lb/>saying that they and their children must needs fall into penury after a short <lb/>time, because they have heaped up riches by improper means. According <lb/>to them nothing is truer than the saying of the poet Naevius:</s>

<s>“Ill gotten gains in ill fashion slip away.”</s>

<s>The following are some of the wicked and sinful methods by which <lb/>they say men obtain riches from mining. When a prospect of obtaining <lb/>metals shows itself in a mine, either the ruler or magistrate drives out the <lb/>rightful owners of the mines from possession, or a shrewd and cunning <lb/>neighbour perhaps brings a law-suit against the old possessors in order to <lb/>rob them of some part of their property. Or the mine superintendent imposes<gap/><lb/>on the owners such a heavy contribution on shares, that if they cannot pay, <lb/>or will not, they lose their rights of possession; while the superintendent, <lb/>contrary to all that is right, seizes upon all that they have lost. Or,

<pb pagenum="21"/>finally, the mine foreman may conceal the vein by plastering over with <lb/>clay that part where the metal abounds, or by covering it with earth, <lb/>stones, stakes, or poles, in the hope that after several years the pro<lb/>prietors, thinking the mine exhausted, will abandon it, and the foreman <lb/>can then excavate that remainder of the ore and keep it for himself. <lb/>They even state that the scum of the miners exist wholly by fraud, <lb/>deceit, and lying. For to speak of nothing else, but only of those <lb/>deceits which are practised in buying and selling, it is said they either <lb/>advertise the veins with false and imaginary praises, so that they can <lb/>sell the shares in the mines at one-half more than they are worth, or <lb/>on the contrary, they sometimes detract from the estimate of them so <lb/>that they can buy shares for a small price. By exposing such frauds our <lb/>critics suppose all good opinion of miners is lost. Now, all wealth, <lb/>whether it has been gained by good or evil means, is liable by some adverse <lb/>chance to vanish away. It decays and is dissipated by the fault and care<lb/>lessness of the owner, since he loses it through laziness and neglect, or <lb/>wastes and squanders it in luxuries, or he consumes and exhausts it in gifts, <lb/>or he dissipates and throws it away in gambling:</s>

<s>“Just as though money sprouted up again, renewed from an exhausted <lb/>coffer, and was always to be obtained from a full heap.”</s>

<s>It is therefore not to be wondered at if miners do not keep in mind the <lb/>counsel given by King Agathocles: “Unexpected fortune should be held <lb/>in reverence,” for by not doing so they fall into penury; and particularly <lb/>when the miners are not content with moderate riches, they not rarely spend <lb/>on new mines what they have accumulated from others. But no just ruler <lb/>or magistrate deprives owners of their possessions; that, however, may be <lb/>done by a tyrant, who may cruelly rob his subjects not only of their goods <lb/>honestly obtained, but even of life itself. And yet whenever I have inquired <lb/>into the complaints which are in common vogue, I always find that the <lb/>owners who are abused have the best of reasons for driving the men from <lb/>the mines; while those who abuse the owners have no reason to complain <lb/>about them. Take the case of those who, not having paid their contributions, <lb/>have lost the right of possession, or those who have been expelled by the magis<lb/>trate out of another man's mine: for some wicked men, mining the small <lb/>veins branching from the veins rich in metal, are wont to invade the property <lb/>of another person. So the magistrate expels these men accused of wrong, <lb/>and drives them from the mine. They then very frequently spread <lb/>unpleasant rumours concerning this amongst the populace. Or, to take <lb/>another case: when, as often happens, a dispute arises between neighbours, <lb/>arbitrators appointed by the magistrate settle it, or the regular judges <lb/>investigate and give judgment. Consequently, when the judgment is given, <lb/>inasmuch as each party has consented to submit to it, neither side should <lb/>complain of injustice; and when the controversy is adjudged, inasmuch as <lb/>the decision is in accordance with the laws concerning mining, one of the <lb/>parties cannot be injured by the law. I do not vigorously contest the point, <lb/>that at times a mine superintendent may exact a larger contribution

<pb pagenum="22"/>from the owners than necessity demands. Nay, I will admit that a for<gap/><lb/>man may plaster over, or hide with a structure, a vein where it is rich i<gap/><lb/>metals. Is the wickedness of one or two to brand the many honest wit<gap/><lb/>fraud and trickery? What body is supposed to be more pious and virtuou<gap/><lb/>in the Republic than the Senate? Yet some Senators have been detecte<gap/><lb/>in peculations, and have been punished. Is this any reason that so honour<gap/><lb/>able a house should lose its good name and fame? The superintenden<gap/><lb/>cannot exact contributions from the owners without the knowledge an<gap/><lb/>permission of the Bergmeister or the deputies; for this reason decep<gap/><lb/>tion of this kind is impossible. Should the foremen be convicted o<gap/><lb/>fraud, they are beaten with rods; or of theft, they are hanged. I<gap/><lb/>is complained that some sellers and buyers of the shares in mines ar<gap/><lb/>fraudulent. I concede it. But can they deceive anyone except a stupid<gap/><lb/>careless man, unskilled in mining matters? Indeed, a wise and pruden<gap/><lb/>man, skilled in this art, if he doubts the trustworthiness of a seller o<gap/><lb/>buyer, goes at once to the mine that he may for himself examine the vei<gap/><lb/>which has been so greatly praised or disparaged, and may consider whethe<gap/><lb/>he will buy or sell the shares or not. But people say, though such an on<gap/><lb/>can be on his guard against fraud, yet a simple man and one who is easil<gap/><lb/>credulous, is deceived. But we frequently see a man who is trying to mislea<gap/><lb/>another in this way deceive himself, and deservedly become a laughing<gap/><lb/>stock for everyone; or very often the defrauder as well as the dupe i<gap/><lb/>entirely ignorant of mining. If, for instance, a vein has been found to b<gap/><lb/>abundant in ore, contrary to the idea of the would-be deceiver, then he wh<gap/><lb/>was to have been cheated gets a profit, and he who has been the deceive<gap/><lb/>loses. Nevertheless, the miners themselves rarely buy or sell shares, bu<gap/><lb/>generally they have <emph type="italics"/>jurati venditores<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>28<emph.end type="sup"/> who buy and sell at such prices as the<gap/><lb/>have been instructed to give or accept. Seeing therefore, that magistrate<gap/><lb/>decide disputes on fair and just principles, that honest men deceive nobody<gap/><lb/>while a dishonest one cannot deceive easily, or if he does he cannot do s<gap/><lb/>with impunity, the criticism of those who wish to disparage the honesty <gap/><lb/>miners has therefore no force or weight.</s>

<s>In the next place, the occupation of the miner is objectionable t<gap/><lb/>nobody. For who, unless he be naturally malevolent and envious, wi<gap/><lb/>hate the man who gains wealth as it were from heaven? Or who will hat<gap/><lb/>a man who to amplify his fortune, adopts a method which is free fro<gap/><lb/>reproach? A moneylender, if he demands an excessive interest, incurs th<gap/><lb/>hatred of men. If he demands a moderate and lawful rate, so that he is n<gap/><lb/>injurious to the public generally and does not impoverish them, he fails t<gap/><lb/>become very rich from his business. Further, the gain derived from minin<gap/><lb/>is not sordid, for how can it be such, seeing that it is so great, so plentifu<gap/><lb/>and of so innocent a nature. A merchant's profits are mean and base whe<gap/><lb/>he sells counterfeit and spurious merchandise, or puts far too high a pri<gap/><lb/>on goods that he has purchased for little; for this reason the mercha<gap/>

<pb pagenum="23"/>would be held in no less odium amongst good men than is the usurer, did <lb/>they not take account of the risk he runs to secure his merchandise. In <lb/>truth, those who on this point speak abusively of mining for the sake of <lb/>detracting from its merits, say that in former days men convicted of crimes <lb/>and misdeeds were sentenced to the mines and were worked as slaves. But <lb/>to-day the miners receive pay, and are engaged like other workmen in the <lb/>common trades.</s>

<s>Certainly, if mining is a shameful and discreditable employment for a <lb/>gentleman because slaves once worked mines, then agriculture also will not be <lb/>a very creditable employment, because slaves once cultivated the fields, and <lb/>even to-day do so among the Turks; nor will architecture be considered <lb/>honest, because some slaves have been found skilful in that profession; <lb/>nor medicine, because not a few doctors have been slaves; nor will any other <lb/>worthy craft, because men captured by force of arms have practised it. <lb/>Yet agriculture, architecture, and medicine are none the less counted <lb/>amongst the number of honourable professions; therefore, mining <lb/>ought not for this reason to be excluded from them. But suppose we <lb/>grant that the hired miners have a sordid employment. We do not mean <lb/>by miners only the diggers and other workmen, but also those skilled in the <lb/>mining arts, and those who invest money in mines. Amongst them can be <lb/>counted kings, princes, republics, and from these last the most esteemed <lb/>citizens. And finally, we include amongst the overseers of mines the noble <lb/>Thucydides, the historian, whom the Athenians placed in charge of the <lb/>mines of Thasos.<emph type="sup"/>29<emph.end type="sup"/> And it would not be unseemly for the owners themselves <lb/>to work with their own hands on the works or ore, especially if they them<lb/>selves have contributed to the cost of the mines. Just as it is not undignified <lb/>for great men to cultivate their own land. Otherwise the Roman Senate <lb/>would not have created Dictator L. Quintius Cincinnatus, as he was at <lb/>work in the fields, nor would it have summoned to the Senate House the <lb/>chief men of the State from their country villas. Similarly, in our day, <lb/>Maximilian Cæsar would not have enrolled Conrad in the ranks of the nobles <lb/>known as Counts; Conrad was really very poor when he served in the mines <lb/>of Schneeberg, and for that reason he was nicknamed the “poor man”; but

<pb pagenum="24"/>not many years after, he attained wealth from the mines of Fürst, which <lb/>is a city in Lorraine, and took his name from “Luck.”<emph type="sup"/>30<emph.end type="sup"/> Nor would <lb/>King Vladislaus have restored to the Assembly of Barons, Tursius, a <lb/>citizen of Cracow, who became rich through the mines in that part of the <lb/>kingdom of Hungary which was formerly called Dacia.<emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/> Nay, not even the <lb/>common worker in the mines is vile and abject. For, trained to vigilance <lb/>and work by night and day, he has great powers of endurance when occasion <lb/>demands, and easily sustains the fatigues and duties of a soldier, for he is <lb/>accustomed to keep long vigils at night, to wield iron tools, to dig trenches, <lb/>to drive tunnels, to make machines, and to carry burdens. Therefore, experts <lb/>in military affairs prefer the miner, not only to a commoner from the town, <lb/>but even to the rustic.</s>

<s>But to bring this discussion to an end, inasmuch as the chief callings <lb/>are those of the moneylender, the soldier, the merchant, the farmer, and the <lb/>miner, I say, inasmuch as usury is odious, while the spoil cruelly captured <lb/>from the possessions of the people innocent of wrong is wicked in the sight <lb/>of God and man, and inasmuch as the calling of the miner excels in honour <lb/>and dignity that of the merchant trading for lucre, while it is not less noble <lb/>though far more profitable than agriculture, who can fail to realize that <lb/>mining is a calling of peculiar dignity? Certainly, though it is but one of <lb/>ten important and excellent methods of acquiring wealth in an honourable <lb/>way, a careful and diligent man can attain this result in no easier way <lb/>than by mining.<lb/><lb/></s>

<pb/>

<s>Qualities which the perfect miner should possess <lb/>and the arguments which are urged for and against <lb/>the arts of mining and metallurgy, as well <lb/>as the people occupied in the industry, I <lb/>have sufficiently discussed in the first Book. Now <lb/>I have determined to give more ample information <lb/>concerning the miners.</s>

<s>In the first place, it is indispensable that they <lb/>should worship God with reverence, and that they <lb/>understand the matters of which I am going to speak, and that they <lb/>take good care that each individual performs his duties efficiently and <lb/>diligently. It is decreed by Divine Providence that those who know <lb/>what they ought to do and then take care to do it properly, for the <lb/>most part meet with good fortune in all they undertake; on the other <lb/>hand, misfortune overtakes the indolent and those who are careless in <lb/>their work. No person indeed can, without great and sustained effort and <lb/>labour, store in his mind the knowledge of every portion of the metallic <lb/>arts which are involved in operating mines. If a man has the means <lb/>of paying the necessary expense, he hires as many men as he needs, and <lb/>sends them to the various works. Thus formerly Sosias, the Thracian, sent <lb/>into the silver mines a thousand slaves whom he had hired from the Athenian <lb/>Nicias, the son of Niceratus<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/>. But if a man cannot afford the expenditure <lb/>he chooses of the various kinds of mining that work which he himself can <lb/>most easily and efficiently do. Of these kinds, the two most important <lb/>are the making prospect trenches and the washing of the sands of rivers, for <lb/>out of these sands are often collected gold dust, or certain black stones <lb/>from which tin is smelted, or even gems are sometimes found in them; the <lb/>trenching occasionally lays bare at the grass-roots veins which are found rich <lb/>in metals. If therefore by skill or by luck, such sands or veins shall fall <lb/>into his hands, he will be able to establish his fortune without expenditure, <lb/>and from poverty rise to wealth. If on the contrary, his hopes are not realised, <lb/>then he can desist from washing or digging.</s>

<s>When anyone, in an endeavour to increase his fortune, meets the <lb/>expenditure of a mine alone, it is of great importance that he should attend <lb/>to his works and personally superintend everything that he has ordered to <lb/>be done. For this reason, he should either have his dwelling at the mine,

<pb pagenum="26"/>where he may always be in sight of the workmen and always take care that <lb/>none neglect their duties, or else he should live in the neighbourhood, so <lb/>that he may frequently inspect his mining works. Then he may send word <lb/>by a messenger to the workmen that he is coming more frequently than <lb/>he really intends to come, and so either by his arrival or by the intimation <lb/>of it, he so frightens the workmen that none of them perform their duties <lb/>otherwise than diligently. When he inspects the mines he should praise the <lb/>diligent workmen and occasionally give them rewards, that they and the <lb/>others may become more zealous in their duties; on the other hand, he <lb/>should rebuke the idle and discharge some of them from the mines and <lb/>substitute industrious men in their places. Indeed, the owner should <lb/>frequently remain for days and nights in the mine, which, in truth, is no <lb/>habitation for the idle and luxurious; it is important that the owner who <lb/>is diligent in increasing his wealth, should frequently himself descend into <lb/>the mine, and devote some time to the study of the nature of the veins and <lb/>stringers, and should observe and consider all the methods of working, both <lb/>inside and outside the mine. Nor is this all he ought to do, for sometimes <lb/>he should undertake actual labour, not thereby demeaning himself, but in <lb/>order to encourage his workmen by his own diligence, and to teach <lb/>them their art; for that mine is well conducted in which not only the <lb/>foreman, but also the owner himself, gives instruction as to what ought to <lb/>be done. A certain barbarian, according to Xenophon, rightly remarked <lb/>to the King of Persia that “the eye of the master feeds the horse,”<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> for the <lb/>master's watchfulness in all things is of the utmost importance.</s>

<s>When several share together the expenditure on a mine, it is convenient <lb/>and useful to elect from amongst their own number a mine captain, and <lb/>also a foreman. For, since men often look after their own interests but <lb/>neglect those of others, they cannot in this case take care of their own without <lb/>at the same time looking after the interests of the others, neither can they <lb/>neglect the interests of the others without neglecting their own. But if <lb/>no man amongst them be willing or able to undertake and sustain the bur<lb/>dens of these offices, it will be to the common interest to place them in the <lb/>hands of most diligent men. Formerly indeed, these things were looked <lb/>after by the mining prefect<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>, because the owners were kings, as Priam, who <lb/>owned the gold mines round Abydos, or as Midas, who was the owner of <lb/>those situated in Mount Bermius, or as Gyges, or as Alyattes, or as Croesus, <lb/>who was the owner of those mines near a deserted town between Atarnea <lb/>and Pergamum<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>; sometimes the mines belonged to a Republic, as, for <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="27"/>instance, the prosperous silver mines in Spain which belonged to Carthage<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>; <lb/>sometimes they were the property of great and illustrious families, as were <lb/>the Athenian mines in Mount Laurion<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s>

<s>When a man owns mines but is ignorant of the art of mining, then <lb/>it is advisable that he should share in common with others the expenses, <lb/>not of one only, but of several mines. When one man alone meets the <lb/>expense for a long time of a whole mine, if good fortune bestows on him a <lb/>vein abundant in metals, or in other products, he becomes very wealthy; if, <lb/>on the contrary, the mine is poor and barren, in time he will lose everything <lb/>which he has expended on it. But the man who, in common with others, <lb/>has laid out his money on several mines in a region renowned for its wealth <lb/>of metals, rarely spends it in vain, for fortune usually responds to his <lb/>hopes in part. For when out of twelve veins in which he has a joint interest <lb/>

<pb pagenum="28"/>one yields an abundance of metals, it not only gives back to the owner the <lb/>money he has spent, but also gives a profit besides; certainly there will <lb/>be for him rich and profitable mining, if of the whole number, three, or four, <lb/>or more veins should yield metal. Very similar to this is the advice which <lb/>Xenophon gave to the Athenians when they wished to prospect for new <lb/>veins of silver without suffering loss. “There are,” he said, “ten tribes <lb/>of Athenians; if, therefore, the State assigned an equal number of <lb/>slaves to each tribe, and the tribes participated equally in all the new veins, <lb/>undoubtedly by this method, if a rich vein of silver were found by one tribe, <lb/>whatever profit were made from it would assuredly be shared by the whole <lb/>number. And if two, three, or four tribes, or even half the whole number <lb/>find veins, their works would then become more profitable; and it is not <lb/>“probable that the work of all the tribes will be disappointing”<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> Although <lb/>this advice of Xenophon is full of prudence, there is no opportunity for it <lb/>except in free and wealthy States; for those people who are under the <lb/>authority of kings and princes, or are kept in subjection by tyranny, do not <lb/>dare, without permission, to incur such expenditure; those who are endowed <lb/>with little wealth and resources cannot do so on account of insufficient funds. <lb/>Moreover, amongst our race it is not customary for Republics to have slaves <lb/>whom they can hire out for the benefit of the people<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>; but, instead, now<lb/>adays those who are in authority administer the funds for mining in the name <lb/>of the State, not unlike private individuals.</s>

<s>Some owners prefer to buy shares<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> in mines abounding in metals, <lb/>rather than to be troubled themselves to search for the veins; these men <lb/>employ an easier and less uncertain method of increasing their property. <lb/>Although their hopes in the shares of one or another mine may be frustrated, <lb/>the buyers of shares should not abandon the rest of the mines, for all the <lb/>money expended will be recovered with interest from some other mine. <lb/>They should not buy only high priced shares in those mines producing metals, <lb/>nor should they buy too many in neighbouring mines where metal has not <lb/>yet been found, lest, should fortune not respond, they may be exhausted by <lb/>their losses and have nothing with which they may meet their expenses <lb/>or buy other shares which may replace their losses. This calamity over<lb/>takes those who wish to grow suddenly rich from mines, and instead, they <lb/>become very much poorer than before. So then, in the buying of shares, <lb/>as in other matters, there should be a certain limit of expenditure which <lb/>miners should set themselves, lest blinded by the desire for excessive wealth, <lb/>they throw all their money away. Moreover, a prudent owner, before he <lb/>buys shares, ought to go to the mine and carefully examine the nature of the <lb/>vein, for it is very important that he should be on his guard lest fraudulent <lb/>sellers of shares should deceive him. Investors in shares may perhaps <lb/>become less wealthy, but they are more certain of some gain than those who <lb/>mine for metals at their own expense, as they are more cautious in trusting <lb/>to fortune. Neither ought miners to be altogether distrustful of fortune, as <lb/>we see some are, who as soon as the shares of any mine begin to go up in <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="30"/>value, sell them, on which account they seldom obtain even moderate wealth. <lb/>There are some people who wash over the dumps from exhausted and <lb/>abandoned mines, and those dumps which are derived from the drains of <lb/>tunnels; and others who smelt the old slags; from all of which they make an <lb/>ample return.</s>

<s>Now a miner, before he begins to mine the veins, must consider seven <lb/>things, namely:—the situation, the conditions, the water, the roads, the <lb/>climate, the right of ownership, and the neighbours. There are four kinds <lb/>of situations—mountain, hill, valley, and plain. Of these four, the <lb/>first two are the most easily mined, because in them tunnels can be <lb/>driven to drain off the water, which often makes mining operations very <lb/>laborious, if it does not stop them altogether. The last two kinds of <lb/>ground are more troublesome, especially because tunnels cannot be driven <lb/>in such places. Nevertheless, a prudent miner considers all these four <lb/>sorts of localities in the region in which he happens to be, and he searches for <lb/>veins in those places where some torrent or other agency has removed and <lb/>swept the soil away; yet he need not prospect everywhere, but since there <lb/>is a great variety, both in mountains and in the three other kinds of <lb/>localities, he always selects from them those which will give him the best <lb/>chance of obtaining wealth.</s>

<s>In the first place, mountains differ greatly in position, some being <lb/>situated in even and level plains, while others are found in broken and <lb/>elevated regions, and others again seem to be piled up, one mountain upon <lb/>another. The wise miner does not mine in mountains which are situated on <lb/>open plains, neither does he dig in those which are placed on the summits of <lb/>mountainous regions, unless by some chance the veins in those mountains <lb/>have been denuded of their surface covering, and abounding in metals and <lb/>other products, are exposed plainly to his notice,—for with regard to what <lb/>I have already said more than once, and though I never repeat it again, <lb/>I wish to emphasize this exception as to the localities which should <lb/>not be selected. All districts do not possess a great number of mountains <lb/>crowded together; some have but one, others two, others three, or perhaps <lb/>a few more. In some places there are plains lying between them; in others <lb/>the mountains are joined together or separated only by narrow valleys. <lb/>The miner should not dig in those solitary mountains, dispersed through <lb/>the plains and open regions, but only in those which are connected and <lb/>joined with others. Then again, since mountains differ in size, some being <lb/>very large, others of medium height, and others more like hills than <lb/>mountains, the miner rarely digs in the largest or the smallest of them, <lb/>but generally only in those of medium size. Moreover, mountains have a <lb/>great variety of shapes; for with some the slopes rise gradually, while <lb/>others, on the contrary, are all precipitous; in some others the slopes are <lb/>gradual on one side, and on the other sides precipitous; some are drawn <lb/>out in length; some are gently curved; others assume different <lb/>shapes. But the miner may dig in all parts of them, except where there <lb/>are precipices, and he should not neglect even these latter if metallic veins

<pb pagenum="31"/>are exposed before his eyes. There are just as great differences in hills as <lb/>there are in mountains, yet the miner does not dig except in those situated <lb/>in mountainous districts, and even very rarely in those. It is however very <lb/>little to be wondered at that the hill in the Island of Lemnos was excavated, <lb/>for the whole is of a reddish-yellow colour, which furnishes for the inhabit<lb/>ants that valuable clay so especially beneficial to mankind<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>. In like <lb/>manner, other hills are excavated if chalk or other varieties of earth are <lb/>exposed, but these are not prospected for.</s>

<s>There are likewise many varieties of valleys and plains. One kind is <lb/>enclosed on the sides with its outlet and entrance open; another has either <lb/>its entrance or its outlet open and the rest of it is closed in; both of these are <lb/>properly called valleys. There is a third variety which is surrounded on all <lb/>sides by mountains, and these are called <emph type="italics"/>convalles.<emph.end type="italics"/> Some valleys again, <lb/>have recesses, and others have none; one is wide, another narrow; one <lb/>is long, another short; yet another kind is not higher than the neighbouring <lb/>plain, and others are lower than the surrounding flat country. But the <lb/>miner does not dig in those surrounded on all sides by mountains, nor in those <lb/>that are open, unless there be a low plain close at hand, or unless a vein <lb/>of metal descending from the mountains should extend into the valley. <lb/>Plains differ from one another, one being situated at low elevation, <lb/>and others higher, one being level and another with a slight incline. The <lb/>miner should never excavate the low-lying plain, nor one which is perfectly <lb/>level, unless it be in some mountain, and rarely should he mine in the other <lb/>kinds of plains.</s>

<s>With regard to the conditions of the locality the miner should <lb/>not contemplate mining without considering whether the place be <lb/>covered with trees or is bare. If it be a wooded place, he who digs there <lb/>has this advantage, besides others, that there will be an abundant supply of <lb/>wood for his underground timbering, his machinery, buildings, smelting, <lb/>and other necessities. If there is no forest he should not mine there unless <lb/>there is a river near, by which he can carry down the timber. Yet wherever <lb/>there is a hope that pure gold or gems may be found, the ground can <lb/>be turned up, even though there is no forest, because the gems need only <lb/>to be polished and the gold to be purified. Therefore the inhabitants of <lb/>hot regions obtain these substances from rough and sandy places, where <lb/>sometimes there are not even shrubs, much less woods.</s>

<s>The miner should next consider the locality, as to whether it has a <lb/>perpetual supply of running water, or whether it is always devoid of water <lb/>except when a torrent supplied by rains flows down from the summits of the <lb/>mountains. The place that Nature has provided with a river or stream can

<pb pagenum="32"/>be made serviceable for many things; for water will never be wanting and <lb/>can be carried through wooden pipes to baths in dwelling-houses; it may <lb/>be carried to the works, where the metals are smelted; and finally, if the <lb/>conditions of the place will allow it, the water can be diverted into the <lb/>tunnels, so that it may turn the underground machinery. Yet on the other <lb/>hand, to convey a constant supply of water by artificial means to mines <lb/>where Nature has denied it access, or to convey the ore to the stream, <lb/>increases the expense greatly, in proportion to the distance the mines are <lb/>away from the river.</s>

<s>The miner also should consider whether the roads from the neighbouring <lb/>regions to the mines are good or bad, short or long. For since a region <lb/>which is abundant in mining products very often yields no agricultural <lb/>produce, and the necessaries of life for the workmen and others must all be <lb/>imported, a bad and long road occasions much loss and trouble with <lb/>porters and carriers, and this increases the cost of goods brought in, which, <lb/>therefore, must be sold at high prices. This injures not so much the work<lb/>men as the masters; since on account of the high price of goods, the work<lb/>men are not content with the wages customary for their labour, nor can <lb/>they be, and they ask higher pay from the owners. And if the owners <lb/>refuse, the men will not work any longer in the mines but will go elsewhere. <lb/>Although districts which yield metals and other mineral products are <lb/>generally healthy, because, being often situated on high and lofty ground, <lb/>they are fanned by every wind, yet sometimes they are unhealthy, as has <lb/>been related in my other book, which is called “<emph type="italics"/>De Natura Eorum Quae <lb/>Effluunt ex Terra.<emph.end type="italics"/>” Therefore, a wise miner does not mine in such places, <lb/>even if they are very productive, when he perceives unmistakable signs <lb/>of pestilence. For if a man mines in an unhealthy region he may be alive <lb/>one hour and dead the next.</s>

<s>Then, the miner should make careful and thorough investigation con<lb/>cerning the lord of the locality, whether he be a just and good man or a <lb/>tyrant, for the latter oppresses men by force of his authority, and seizes <lb/>their possessions for himself; but the former governs justly and lawfully <lb/>and serves the common good. The miner should not start mining opera<lb/>tions in a district which is oppressed by a tyrant, but should carefully <lb/>consider if in the vicinity there is any other locality suitable for mining and <lb/>make up his mind if the overlord there be friendly or inimical. If he be <lb/>inimical the mine will be rendered unsafe through hostile attacks, in one of <lb/>which all of the gold or silver, or other mineral products, laboriously col<lb/>lected with much cost, will be taken away from the owner and his workmen <lb/>will be struck with terror; overcome by fear, they will hastily fly, to free <lb/>themselves from the danger to which they are exposed. In this case, not <lb/>only are the fortunes of the miner in the greatest peril but his very life is <lb/>in jeopardy, for which reason he should not mine in such places.</s>

<s>Since several miners usually come to mine the veins in one locality, a <lb/>settlement generally springs up, for the miner who began first cannot keep <lb/>it exclusively for himself. The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> gives permits to some to mine

<pb pagenum="33"/>the superior and some the inferior parts of the veins; to some he gives <lb/>the cross veins, to others the inclined veins. If the man who first starts <lb/>work finds the vein to be metal-bearing or yielding other mining products, <lb/>it will not be to his advantage to cease work because the neighbourhood may <lb/>be evil, but he will guard and defend his rights both by arms and by the law. <lb/>When the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> delimits the boundaries of each owner, it is the duty <lb/>of a good miner to keep within his bounds, and of a prudent one to repel <lb/>encroachments of his neighbours by the help of the law. But this is enough <lb/>about the neighbourhood.</s>

<s>The miner should try to obtain a mine, to which access is not difficult, <lb/>in a mountainous region, gently sloping, wooded, healthy, safe, and not far <lb/>distant from a river or stream by means of which he may convey his <lb/>mining products to be washed and smelted. This indeed, is the best <lb/>position. As for the others, the nearer they approximate to this position the <lb/>better they are; the further removed, the worse.</s>

<s>Now I will discuss that kind of minerals for which it is not necessary <lb/>to dig, because the force of water carries them out of the veins. Of these <lb/>there are two kinds, minerals—and their fragments<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>—and juices. When <lb/>there are springs at the outcrop of the veins from which, as I have already said, <lb/>the above-mentioned products are emitted, the miner should consider these <lb/>first, to see whether there are metals or gems mixed with the sand, or whether <lb/>the waters discharged are filled with juices. In case metals or gems have <lb/>settled in the pool of the spring, not only should the sand from it be <lb/>washed, but also that from the streams which flow from these springs, and <lb/>even from the river itself into which they again discharge. If the springs dis<lb/>charge water containing some juice, this also should be collected; the further <lb/>such a stream has flowed from the source, the more it receives plain water and <lb/>the more diluted does it become, and so much the more deficient in strength. <lb/>If the stream receives no water of another kind, or scarcely any, not only <lb/>the rivers, but likewise the lakes which receive these waters, are of the same <lb/>nature as the springs, and serve the same uses; of this kind is the lake <lb/>which the Hebrews call the Dead Sea, and which is quite full of bituminous <lb/>fluids<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>. But I must return to the subject of the sands.</s>

<s>Springs may discharge their waters into a sea, a lake, a marsh, a river, <lb/>or a stream; but the sand of the sea-shore is rarely washed, for although the <lb/>water flowing down from the springs into the sea carries some metals or <lb/>gems with it, yet these substances can scarcely ever be reclaimed, because <lb/>they are dispersed through the immense body of waters and mixed up with <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="34"/>other sand, and scattered far and wide in different directions, or they <lb/>sink down into the depths of the sea. For the same reasons, the sands of <lb/>lakes can very rarely be washed successfully, even though the streams rising <lb/>from the mountains pour their whole volume of water into them. The <lb/>particles of metals and gems from the springs are very rarely carried into the <lb/>marshes, which are generally in level and open places. Therefore, the <lb/>miner, in the first place, washes the sand of the spring, then of the stream <lb/>which flows from it, then finally, that of the river into which the stream <lb/>discharges. It is not worth the trouble to wash the sands of a large <lb/>river which is on a level plain at a distance from the mountains. Where <lb/>several springs carrying metals discharge their waters into one river, there <lb/>is more hope of productive results from washing. The miner does not <lb/>neglect even the sands of the streams in which excavated ores have been <lb/>washed.</s>

<s>The waters of springs taste according to the juice they contain, and <lb/>they differ greatly in this respect. There are six kinds of these tastes which <lb/>the worker<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> especially observes and examines; there is the salty kind, <lb/>which shows that salt may be obtained by evaporation; the nitrous, which <lb/>indicates soda; the aluminous kind, which indicates alum; the vitrioline, <lb/>which indicates vitriol; the sulphurous kind, which indicates sulphur; <lb/>and as for the bituminous juice, out of which bitumen is melted down, the <lb/>colour itself proclaims it to the worker who is evaporating it. The sea<lb/>water however, is similar to that of salt springs, and may be drawn into <lb/>low-lying pits, and, evaporated by the heat of the sun, changes of <lb/>itself into salt; similarly the water of some salt-lakes turns to salt when dried <lb/>by the heat of summer. Therefore an industrious and diligent man observes <lb/>and makes use of these things and thus contributes something to the <lb/>common welfare.</s>

<s>The strength of the sea condenses the liquid bitumen which flows into <lb/>it from hidden springs, into amber and jet, as I have described already in <lb/>my books “<emph type="italics"/>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causis<emph.end type="italics"/>”<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>. The sea, with certain <lb/>

<pb pagenum="35"/>directions of the wind, throws both these substances on shore, and for this <lb/>reason the search for amber demands as much care as does that for coral.</s>

<s>Moreover, it is necessary that those who wash the sand or evaporate <lb/>the water from the springs, should be careful to learn the nature of the <lb/>locality, its roads, its salubrity, its overlord, and the neighbours, lest on <lb/>account of difficulties in the conduct of their business they become either <lb/>impoverished by exhaustive expenditure, or their goods and lives are <lb/>imperilled. But enough about this.</s>

<s>The miner, after he has selected out of many places one particular spot <lb/>adapted by Nature for mining, bestows much labour and attention on the <lb/>veins. These have either been stripped bare of their covering by chance <lb/>and thus lie exposed to our view, or lying deeply hidden and concealed they <lb/>are found after close search; the latter is more usual, the former more <lb/>rarely happens, and both of these occurrences must be explained. There <lb/>is more than one force which can lay bare the veins unaided by the industry <lb/>or toil of man; since either a torrent might strip off the surface, which hap<lb/>pened in the case of the silver mines of Freiberg (concerning which I have

<pb pagenum="36"/>written in Book I. of my work “<emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novís Metallís<emph.end type="italics"/>”)<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>; or they <lb/>may be exposed through the force of the wind, when it uproots and destroys <lb/>the trees which have grown over the veins; or by the breaking away of the <lb/>rocks; or by long-continued heavy rains tearing away the mountain; or by <lb/>an earthquake; or by a lightning flash; or by a snowslide; or by the <lb/>violence of the winds: “Of such a nature are the rocks hurled down from <lb/>the mountains by the force of the winds aided by the ravages of time.” Or <lb/>the plough may uncover the veins, for Justin relates in his history that <lb/>nuggets of gold had been turned up in Galicia by the plough; or this may <lb/>occur through a fire in the forest, as Diodorus Siculus tells us happened in the <lb/>silver mines in Spain; and that saying of Posidonius is appropriate enough: <lb/>“The earth violently moved by the fires consuming the forest sends forth new <lb/>products, namely, gold and silver.”<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>. And indeed, Lucretius has ex<lb/>plained the same thing more fully in the following lines: “Copper and gold <lb/>and iron were discovered, and at the same time weighty silver and the sub<lb/>stance of lead, when fire had burned up vast forests on the great hills, either <lb/>by a discharge of heaven's lightning, or else because, when men were waging <lb/>war with one another, forest fires had carried fire among the enemy in order to <lb/>strike terror to them, or because, attracted by the goodness of the soil, they <lb/>wished to clear rich fields and bring the country into pasture, or else to destroy <lb/>wild beasts and enrich themselves with the game; for hunting with pitfalls <lb/>and with fire came into use before the practice of enclosing the wood with <lb/>toils and rousing the game with dogs. Whatever the fact is, from <lb/>

<pb pagenum="37"/>whatever cause the heat of flame had swallowed up the forests with a frightful <lb/>crackling from their very roots, and had thoroughly baked the earth with <lb/>fire, there would run from the boiling veins and collect into the hollows of the <lb/>grounds a stream of silver and gold, as well as of copper and lead.”<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> But <lb/>yet the poet considers that the veins are not laid bare in the first instance <lb/>so much by this kind of fire, but rather that all mining had its <lb/>origin in this. And lastly, some other force may by chance disclose the <lb/>veins, for a horse, if this tale can be believed, disclosed the lead veins at <lb/>Goslar by a blow from his hoof<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/>. By such methods as these does fortune <lb/>disclose the veins to us.</s>

<s>But by skill we can also investigate hidden and concealed veins, by <lb/>observing in the first place the bubbling waters of springs, which cannot be <lb/>very far distant from the veins because the source of the water is from <lb/>them; secondly, by examining the fragments of the veins which the torrents <lb/>break off from the earth, for after a long time some of these fragments are <lb/>again buried in the ground. Fragments of this kind lying about on the <lb/>ground, if they are rubbed smooth, are a long distance from the veins, <lb/>because the torrent, which broke them from the vein, polished them while <lb/>it rolled them a long distance; but if they are fixed in the ground, or if <lb/>they are rough, they are nearer to the veins. The soil also should be con<lb/>sidered, for this is often the cause of veins being buried more or less deeply <lb/>under the earth; in this case the fragments protrude more or less widely <lb/>apart, and miners are wont to call the veins discovered in this manner <lb/>“<emph type="italics"/>fragmenta.<emph.end type="italics"/>”<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>Further, we search for the veins by observing the hoar-frosts, <lb/>which whiten all herbage except that growing over the veins, because the <lb/>veins emit a warm and dry exhalation which hinders the freezing of the <lb/>moisture, for which reason such plants appear rather wet than whitened by <lb/>the frost. This may be observed in all cold places before the grass has grown <lb/>to its full size, as in the months of April and May; or when the late crop of <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="38"/>hay, which is called the <emph type="italics"/>cordum,<emph.end type="italics"/> is cut with scythes in the month of <lb/>September. Therefore in places where the grass has a dampness that is not con<lb/>gealed into frost, there is a vein beneath: also if the exhalation be excessively <lb/>hot, the soil will produce only small and pale-coloured plants. Lastly, there <lb/>are trees whose foliage in spring time has a bluish or leaden tint, the upper <lb/>branches more especially being tinged with black or with any other unnatural <lb/>colour, the trunks cleft in two, and the branches black or discoloured. <lb/>These phenomena are caused by the intensely hot and dry exhalations <lb/>which do not spare even the roots, but scorching them, render the trees <lb/>sickly; wherefore the wind will more frequently uproot trees of this kind <lb/>than any others. Verily the veins do emit this exhalation. Therefore, in a <lb/>place where there is a multitude of trees, if a long row of them at an unusual <lb/>time lose their verdure and become black or discoloured, and frequently fall <lb/>by the violence of the wind, beneath this spot there is a vein. Likewise <lb/>along a course where a vein extends, there grows a certain herb or fungus <lb/>which is absent from the adjacent space, or sometimes even from the neigh<lb/>bourhood of the veins. By these signs of Nature a vein can be discovered.</s>

<s>There are many great contentions between miners concerning the forked <lb/>twig<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/>, for some say that it is of the greatest use in discovering veins, and <lb/>others deny it. Some of those who manipulate and use the twig, first cut <lb/>a fork from a hazel bush with a knife, for this bush they consider more <lb/>efficacious than any other for revealing the veins, especially if the hazel

<pb pagenum="39"/>bush grows above a vein. Others use a different kind of twig for each metal, <lb/>when they are seeking to discover the veins, for they employ hazel twigs <lb/>for veins of silver; ash twigs for copper; pitch pine for lead and especially <lb/>tin, and rods made of iron and steel for gold. All alike grasp the forks of <lb/>the twig with their hands, clenching their fists, it being necessary that the <lb/>clenched fingers should be held toward the sky in order that the twig should <lb/>be raised at that end where the two branches meet. Then they wander <lb/>hither and thither at random through mountainous regions. It is said <lb/>that the moment they place their feet on a vein the twig immediately turns <lb/>and twists, and so by its action discloses the vein; when they move <lb/>their feet again and go away from that spot the twig becomes once more <lb/>immobile.</s>

<s>The truth is, they assert, the movement of the twig is caused by the <lb/>power of the veins, and sometimes this is so great that the branches of trees <lb/>growing near a vein are deflected toward it. On the other hand, those <lb/>who say that the twig is of no use to good and serious men, also deny that <lb/>the motion is due to the power of the veins, because the twigs will not move <lb/>for everybody, but only for those who employ incantations and craft. More<lb/>over, they deny the power of a vein to draw to itself the branches of trees, <lb/>but they say that the warm and dry exhalations cause these contortions. <lb/>Those who advocate the use of the twig make this reply to these objections: <lb/>when one of the miners or some other person holds the twig in his hands, <lb/>and it is not turned by the force of a vein, this is due to some peculiarity <lb/>of the individual, which hinders and impedes the power of the vein, for since <lb/>the power of the vein in turning and twisting the twig may be not unlike <lb/>that of a magnet attracting and drawing iron toward itself, this hidden <lb/>quality of a man weakens and breaks the force, just the same as garlic <lb/>weakens and overcomes the strength of a magnet. For a magnet smeared <lb/>with garlic juice cannot attract iron; nor does it attract the latter when <lb/>rusty. Further, concerning the handling of the twig, they warn us that <lb/>we should not press the fingers together too lightly, nor clench them too <lb/>firmly, for if the twig is held lightly they say that it will fall before the force <lb/>of the vein can turn it; if however, it is grasped too firmly the force of the <lb/>hands resists the force of the veins and counteracts it. Therefore, they <lb/>consider that five things are necessary to insure that the twig shall serve <lb/>its purpose: of these the first is the size of the twig, for the force of the <lb/>veins cannot turn too large a stick; secondly, there is the shape of the twig, <lb/>which must be forked or the vein cannot turn it; thirdly, the power of the <lb/>vein which has the nature to turn it; fourthly, the manipulation of the twig; <lb/>fifthly, the absence of impeding peculiarities. These advocates of the twig <lb/>sum up their conclusions as follows: if the rod does not move for every<lb/>body, it is due to unskilled manipulation or to the impeding peculiarities <lb/>of the man which oppose and resist the force of the veins, as we said above, <lb/>and those who search for veins by means of the twig need not necessarily make <lb/>incantations, but it is sufficient that they handle it suitably and are devoid <lb/>of impeding power; therefore, the twig may be of use to good and serious </s>

<s>A—TWIG. B—TRENCH.<lb/>men in discovering veins. With regard to deflection of branches of trees <lb/>they say nothing and adhere to their opinion.</s>

<s>Since this matter remains in dispute and causes much dissention <lb/>amongst miners, I consider it ought to be examined on its own merits. The <lb/>wizards, who also make use of rings, mirrors and crystals, seek for veins <lb/>with a divining rod shaped like a fork; but its shape makes no difference <lb/>in the matter,—it might be straight or of some other form—for it is not <lb/>the form of the twig that matters, but the wizard's incantations <lb/>which it would not become me to repeat, neither do I wish to do so. The <lb/>Ancients, by means of the divining rod, not only procured those things neces<lb/>sary for a livelihood or for luxury, but they were also able to alter the forms <lb/>of things by it; as when the magicians changed the rods of the Egyptians <lb/>into serpents, as the writings of the Hebrews relate<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/>; and as in Homer, <lb/>Minerva with a divining rod turned the aged Ulysses suddenly into a youth, <lb/>and then restored him back again to old age; Circe also changed Ulysses' <lb/>companions into beasts, but afterward gave them back again their human <lb/>form<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/>; moreover by his rod, which was called “Caduceus,” Mercury gave <lb/>

<pb pagenum="41"/>sleep to watchmen and awoke slumberers<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/>. Therefore it seems that the <lb/>divining rod passed to the mines from its impure origin with the magicians. <lb/>Then when good men shrank with horror from the incantations and rejected <lb/>them, the twig was retained by the unsophisticated common miners, and <lb/>in searching for new veins some traces of these ancient usages remain.</s>

<s>But since truly the twigs of the miners do move, albeit they do not <lb/>generally use incantations, some say this movement is caused by the <lb/>power of the veins, others say that it depends on the manipulation, and <lb/>still others think that the movement is due to both these causes. But, in <lb/>truth, all those objects which are endowed with the power of attraction <lb/>do not twist things in circles, but attract them directly to themselves; for <lb/>instance, the magnet does not turn the iron, but draws it directly to itself, <lb/>and amber rubbed until it is warm does not bend straws about, but simply <lb/>draws them to itself. If the power of the veins were of a similar nature to <lb/>that of the magnet and the amber, the twig would not so much twist as <lb/>move once only, in a semi-circle, and be drawn directly to the vein, and unless <lb/>the strength of the man who holds the twig were to resist and oppose the <lb/>force of the vein, the twig would be brought to the ground; wherefore, <lb/>since this is not the case, it must necessarily follow that the manipulation <lb/>is the cause of the twig's twisting motion. It is a conspicuous fact that <lb/>these cunning manipulators do not use a straight twig, but a forked one <lb/>cut from a hazel bush, or from some other wood equally flexible, so that if it <lb/>be held in the hands, as they are accustomed to hold it, it turns in a circle <lb/>for any man wherever he stands. Nor is it strange that the twig does not <lb/>turn when held by the inexperienced, because they either grasp the forks of <lb/>the twig too tightly or hold them too loosely. Nevertheless, these things <lb/>give rise to the faith among common miners that veins are discovered by <lb/>the use of twigs, because whilst using these they do accidentally discover <lb/>some; but it more often happens that they lose their labour, and although <lb/>they might discover a vein, they become none the less exhausted in <lb/>digging useless trenches than do the miners who prospect in an unfortunate <lb/>locality. Therefore a miner, since we think he ought to be a good and <lb/>serious man, should not make use of an enchanted twig, because if he is <lb/>prudent and skilled in the natural signs, he understands that a forked stick <lb/>is of no use to him, for as I have said before, there are the natural indica<lb/>tions of the veins which he can see for himself without the help of twigs. <lb/>So if Nature or chance should indicate a locality suitable for mining, the <lb/>miner should dig his trenches there; if no vein appears he must dig <lb/>numerous trenches until he discovers an outcrop of a vein.</s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>A vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> is rarely discovered by men's labour, but usually some <lb/>force or other reveals it, or sometimes it is discovered by a shaft or a tunnel <lb/>on a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s>

<s>The veins after they have been discovered, and likewise the shafts and <lb/>tunnels, have names given them, either from their discoverers, as in the <lb/>case at Annaberg of the vein called “Kölergang,” because a charcoal <lb/>burner discovered it; or from their owners, as the Geyer, in Joachimstal, <lb/>because part of the same belonged to Geyer; or from their products, <lb/>as the “Pleygang” from lead, or the “Bissmutisch” at Schneeberg from <lb/>bismuth<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/>; or from some other circumstances, such as the rich alluvials from <lb/>the torrent by which they were laid bare in the valley of Joachim. More <lb/>often the first discoverers give the names either of persons, as those of <lb/>German Kaiser, Apollo, Janus; or the name of an animal, as that of lion, <lb/>bear, ram, or cow; or of things inanimate, as “silver chest” or “ox stalls”; <lb/>or of something ridiculous, as “glutton's nightshade”; or finally, for the sake <lb/>of a good omen, they call it after the Deity. In ancient times they <lb/>followed the same custom and gave names to the veins, shafts and tunnels, <lb/>as we read in Pliny: “It is wonderful that the shafts begun by Hannibal in <lb/>Spain are still worked, their names being derived from their discoverers. <lb/>One of these at the present day, called Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with <lb/>three hundred pounds weight (of silver) per day.”<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/><lb/></s>

<pb/>

<s>Previously I have given much information <lb/>concerning the miners, also I have discussed the <lb/>choice of localities for mining. for washing sands, <lb/>and for evaporating waters; further, I described <lb/>the method of searching for veins. With such <lb/>matters I was occupied in the second book; now I <lb/>come to the third book, which is about veins and <lb/>stringers, and the seams in the rocks<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/>. The <lb/>term “vein” is sometimes used to indicate <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>in the earth, but very often elsewhere by this name I have described that <lb/>which may be put in vessels<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>; I now attach a second significance to <lb/>these words, for by them I mean to designate any mineral substances which <lb/>the earth keeps hidden within her own deep receptacles.<lb/></s>

<s>First I will speak of the veins, which, in depth, width, and length, differ <lb/>very much one from another. Those of one variety descend from the surface <lb/>of the earth to its lowest depths, which on account of this characteristic, <lb/>I am accustomed to call “<emph type="italics"/>venae profundae.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s>

<s>A. C.—THE MOUNTAIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Another kind, unlike the <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> neither ascend to the surface <lb/>of the earth nor descend, but lying under the ground, expand over a large <lb/>area; and on that account I call them “<emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s>

<s>Another occupies a large extent of space in length and width; there<lb/>fore I usually call it “<emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata,<emph.end type="italics"/>” for it is nothing else than an accumu<lb/>lation of some certain kind of mineral, as I have described in the book

<pb pagenum="47"/>entitled <emph type="italics"/>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causís.<emph.end type="italics"/> It occasionally happens, <lb/>though it is unusual and rare, that several accumulations of this kind are <lb/>found in one place, each one or more fathoms in depth and four or five in

<pb pagenum="48"/>width, and one is distant from another two, three, or more fathoms. When <lb/>the excavation of these accumulations begins, they at first appear in the <lb/>shape of a disc; then they open out wider; finally from each of such </s>

<s>A, B, C, D—THE MOUNTAIN. E, F, G, H, I, K—<emph type="italics"/>Vena cumulata.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>accumulations is usually formed a “<emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s>

<s>A—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/> B—<emph type="italics"/>Intervenium.<emph.end type="italics"/> C—ANOTHER <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>A & B—<emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/> C—<emph type="italics"/>Intervenium.<emph.end type="italics"/> D & E—OTHER <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>The space between two veins is called an <emph type="italics"/>interveníum;<emph.end type="italics"/> this interval <lb/>between the veins, if it is between <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> is entirely hidden under<lb/>ground. If, however, it lies between <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> then the top is plainly <lb/>in sight, and the remainder is hidden.</s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ greatly one from another in width, for some of <lb/>them are one fathom wide, some are two cubits, others one cubit; others again <lb/>are a foot wide, and some only half a foot; all of which our miners call wide <lb/>veins. Others on the contrary, are only a palm wide, others three digits,

<pb pagenum="52"/>or even two; these they call narrow. But in other places where there are <lb/>very wide veins, the widths of a cubit, or a foot, or half a foot, are said to be <lb/>narrow; at Cremnitz, for instance, there is a certain vein which measures <lb/>in one place fifteen fathoms in width, in another eighteen, and in another <lb/>twenty; the truth of this statement is vouched for by the inhabitants.</s>

<s>A—WIDE <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/> B—NARROW <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> in truth, differ also in thickness, for some are one fathom <lb/>thick, others two, or even more; some are a cubit thick, some a foot, some <lb/>only half a foot; and all these are usually called thick veins. Some on the <lb/>other hand, are but a palm thick, some three digits, some two, some one; <lb/>these are called thin veins.</s>

<s>A—THIN <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/> B—THICK <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s><emph type="italics"/>Venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> vary in direction; for some run from east to west.</s>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—SEAMS IN THE ROCK (<emph type="italics"/>Commissurae Saxorum<emph.end type="italics"/>).</s>

<s>Others, on the other hand, run from west to east.</s>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Others run from south to north.</s>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Others, on the contrary, run from north to south.</s>

<s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>The seams in the rocks indicate to us whether a vein runs from the <lb/>east or from the west. For instance, if the rock seams incline toward the <lb/>westward as they descend into the earth, the vein is said to run from east <lb/>to west; if they incline toward the east, the vein is said to run from west <lb/>to east; in a similar manner, we determine from the rock seams whether <lb/>the veins run north or south.</s>

<s>Now miners divide each quarter of the earth into six divisions; and by <lb/>this method they apportion the earth into twenty-four directions, which they <lb/>divide into two parts of twelve each. The instrument which indicates these <lb/>directions is thus constructed. First a circle is made; then at equal <lb/>intervals on one half portion of it right through to the other, twelve <lb/>straight lines called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">dia/metroi,</foreign> and in the Latin <emph type="italics"/>dímetíentes,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>are drawn through a central point which the Greeks call <foreign lang="greek">ke/ntron,</foreign> so that <lb/>the circle is thus divided into twenty-four divisions, all being of an equal <lb/>size. Then, within the circle are inscribed three other circles, the outer<lb/>most of which has cross-lines dividing it into twenty-four equal parts; the <lb/>space between it and the next circle contains two sets of twelve numbers, <lb/>inscribed on the lines called “diameters”; while within the innermost circle <lb/>it is hollowed out to contain a magnetic needle<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. The needle lies directly

<pb pagenum="57"/>over that one of the twelve lines called “diameters” on which the number <lb/>XII is inscribed at both ends.</s>

<s>When the needle which is governed by the magnet points directly <lb/>from the north to the south, the number XII at its tail, which is <lb/>forked, signifies the north, that number XII which is at its point indicates <lb/>the south. The sign VI superior indicates the east, and VI inferior the <lb/>west. Further, between each two cardinal points there are always <lb/>five others which are not so important. The first two of these directions <lb/>are called the prior directions; the last two are called the posterior, and <lb/>the fifth direction lies immediately between the former and the latter; it <lb/>is halved, and one half is attributed to one cardinal point and one half to the <lb/>other. For example, between the northern number XII and the eastern <lb/>number VI, are points numbered I, II, III, IV, V, of which I and

<pb pagenum="58"/>II are northern directions lying toward the east, IV and V are eastern <lb/>directions lying toward the north, and III is assigned, half to the north and <lb/>half to the east.</s>

<s>One who wishes to know the direction of the veins underground, places <lb/>over the vein the instrument just described; and the needle, as soon as it <lb/>becomes quiet, will indicate the course of the vein. That is, if the vein <lb/>proceeds from VI to VI, it either runs from east to west, or from west to <lb/>east; but whether it be the former or the latter, is clearly shown by the <lb/>seams in the rocks. If the vein proceeds along the line which is between V <lb/>and VI toward the opposite direction, it runs from between the fifth and <lb/>sixth divisions of east to the west, or from between the fifth and sixth <lb/>divisions of west to the east; and again, whether it is the one or the other <lb/>is clearly shown by the seams in the rocks. In a similar manner we <lb/>determine the other directions.</s>

<s>Now miners reckon as many points as the sailors do in reckoning up <lb/>the number of the winds. Not only is this done to-day in this country, but <lb/>it was also done by the Romans who in olden times gave the winds partly <lb/>Latin names and partly names borrowed from the Greeks. Any miner who <lb/>pleases may therefore call the directions of the veins by the names of the <lb/>winds. There are four principal winds, as there are four cardinal points: <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which blows from the east; and its opposite the <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which blows from the west; the latter is called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*ze/furos,</foreign> and <lb/>the former <foreign lang="greek">*)aphliw/ths.</foreign> There is the <emph type="italics"/>Auster,<emph.end type="italics"/> which blows from the south; <lb/>and opposed to it is the <emph type="italics"/>Septentrío,<emph.end type="italics"/> from the north; the former the Greeks <lb/>called <foreign lang="greek">*no/tos,</foreign> and the latter <foreign lang="greek">*)aparkti/as.</foreign> There are also subordinate winds, <lb/>to the number of twenty, as there are directions, for between each two <lb/>principal winds there are always five subordinate ones. Between the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind) there is the <emph type="italics"/>Orníthíae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or the Bird wind, which has the first place next to the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/>comes <emph type="italics"/>Caecías;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Eurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which lies in the midway of these five; next <lb/>comes <emph type="italics"/>Vulturnus;<emph.end type="italics"/> and lastly, <emph type="italics"/>Euronotus,<emph.end type="italics"/> nearest the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind). <lb/>The Greeks have given these names to all of these, with the exception of <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Vulturnus,<emph.end type="italics"/> but those who do not distinguish the winds in so precise a manner <lb/>say this is the same as the Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">*eu)_ros.</foreign> Between the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south <lb/>wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Favonius<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind) is first <emph type="italics"/>Altanus,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the right of the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind); then <emph type="italics"/>Líbonotus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Afrícus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is the middle <lb/>one of these five; after that comes <emph type="italics"/>Subvesperus;<emph.end type="italics"/> next <emph type="italics"/>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left <lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind). All these, with the exception of <emph type="italics"/>Líbonotus<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"/> have Latin names; but <emph type="italics"/>Afrícus<emph.end type="italics"/> also is called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*ai/y.</foreign><lb/>In a similar manner, between <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind) and <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north <lb/>wind), first to the right of <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind), is the <emph type="italics"/>Etesíae;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Círcíus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is in the middle of these five; then <emph type="italics"/>Corus;<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and lastly <emph type="italics"/>Thrascias<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left of <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind). To all of <lb/>these, except that of <emph type="italics"/>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> the Greeks gave the names, and those <lb/>who do not distinguish the winds by so exact a plan, assert that the wind <lb/>which the Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">*ko/ros</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>Caurus<emph.end type="italics"/> is one and the same.

<pb pagenum="59"/>Again, between <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind), the <lb/>first to the right of <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind) is <emph type="italics"/>Gallicus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Supernas;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Aquilo,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is the middle one of these five; next comes <emph type="italics"/>Boreas;<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>lastly <emph type="italics"/>Carbas,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left of <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind). Here again, those who <lb/>do not consider the winds to be in so great a multitude, but say there are <lb/>but twelve winds in all, or at the most fourteen, assert that the wind called <lb/>

<figure id="fig1"></figure><lb/>by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*bore/as</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>Aquílo<emph.end type="italics"/> is one and the same. For our <lb/>purpose it is not only useful to adopt this large number of winds, but even <lb/>to double it, as the German sailors do. They always reckon that between <lb/>each two there is one in the centre taken from both. By this method we

<pb pagenum="60"/>also are able to signify the intermediate directions by means of the names of <lb/>the winds. For instance, if a vein runs from VI east to VI west, it is said <lb/>to proceed from <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind) to <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind); but one <lb/>which proceeds from between V and VI of the east to between V and VI <lb/>west is said to proceed out of the middle of <emph type="italics"/>Carbas<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> to between <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Argestes<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus;<emph.end type="italics"/> the remaining directions, and their intermediates <lb/>are similarly designated. The miner, on account of the natural properties <lb/>of a magnet, by which the needle points to the south, must fix the instru<lb/>ment already described so that east is to the left and west to the right.</s>

<s>In a similar way to <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> the <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> vary in their <lb/>lateral directions, and we are able to understand from the seams in the <lb/>rocks in which direction they extend into the ground. For if these incline <lb/>toward the west in depth, the vein is said to extend from east to west; <lb/>if on the contrary, they incline toward the east, the vein is said to go from <lb/>west to east. In the same way, from the rock seams we can determine <lb/>veins running south and north, or the reverse, and likewise to the <lb/>subordinate directions and their intermediates.</s>

<s>A, B—<emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/> C—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Further, as regards the question of direction of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> one <lb/>runs straight from one quarter of the earth to that quarter which is opposite, <lb/>while another one runs in a curve, in which case it may happen that a vein <lb/>proceeding from the east does not turn to the quarter opposite, which is the <lb/>west, but twists itself and turns to the south or the north.</s>

<s>A—STRAIGHT <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/> B—CURVED <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> [should be <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/>(?)].</s>

<s>Similarly some <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> are horizontal, some are inclined, and <lb/>some are curved.</s>

<s>A—HORIZONTAL <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/> B—INCLINED <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/> C—CURVED <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Also the veins which we call <emph type="italics"/>profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ in the manner in which <lb/>they descend into the depths of the earth; for some are vertical (A), some are <lb/>inclined and sloping (B), others crooked<gap/> (C).</s>

<s>Moreover, <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (B) differ much among themselves regarding <lb/>the kind of locality through which they pass, for some extend along the <lb/>slopes of mountains or hills (A-C) and do not descend down the sides.</s>

<s>Other <emph type="italics"/>Venae Profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (D, E, F) from the very summit of the mountain <lb/>or hill descend the slope (A) to the hollow or valley (B), and they again ascend <lb/>the slope or the side of the mountain or hill opposite (C)</s>

<s>Other <emph type="italics"/>Venae Profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (C, D) descend the mountain or hill (A) and <lb/>extend out into the plain (B).</s>

<s>Some veins run straight along on the plateaux, the hills, or plains.</s>

<s>A—MOUNTAINOUS PLAIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—TRANSVERSE VEIN. C—VEIN CUTTING PRINCIPAL ONE <lb/>OBLIQUELY.</s>

<s>In the next place, <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ not a little in the manner in <lb/>which they intersect, since one may cross through a second transversely, or <lb/>one may cross another one obliquely as if cutting it in two.</s>

<s>If a vein which cuts through another principal one obliquely be the <lb/>harder of the two, it penetrates right through it, just as a wedge of beech or <lb/>iron can be driven through soft wood by means of a tool. If it be softer, the <lb/>principal vein either drags the soft one with it for a distance of three feet, or <lb/>perhaps one, two, three, or several fathoms, or else throws it forward along <lb/>the principal vein; but this latter happens very rarely. But that the vein <lb/>which cuts the principal one is the same vein on both sides, is shown by its <lb/>having the same character in its foot walls and hanging walls.</s>

<s>A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—VEIN WHICH CUTS A OBLIQUELY. C—PART CARRIED AWAY. <lb/>D—THAT PART WHICH HAS BEEN CARRIED FORWARD.</s>

<s>Sometimes <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> join one with another, and from two or <lb/>more outcropping veins<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>, one is formed; or from two which do not outcrop <lb/>one is made, if they are not far distant from each other, and the one dips <lb/>into the other, or if each dips toward the other, and they thus join when they <lb/>have descended in depth. In exactly the same way, out of three or more <lb/>veins, one may be formed in depth.</s>

<s>A, B—TWO VEINS DESCEND INCLINED AND DIP TOWARD EACH OTHER. <lb/>C—JUNCTION. LIKEWISE TWO VEINS. D—INDICATES ONE DESCENDING VERTICALLY. <lb/>E—MARKS THE OTHER DESCENDING INCLINED, WHICH DIPS TOWARD D. F—THEIR JUNCTIO<gap/></s>

<s>However, such a junction of veins sometimes disunites and in this <lb/>way it happens that the vein which was the right-hand vein becomes <lb/>the left; and again, the one which was on the left becomes the right.</s>

<s>Furthermore, one vein may be split and divided into parts by some hard <lb/>rock resembling a beak, or stringers in soft rock may sunder the vein and <lb/>make two or more. These sometimes join together again and sometimes <lb/>remain divided.</s>

<s>A, B—VEINS DIVIDING. C—THE SAME JOINING.</s>

<s>Whether a vein is separating from or uniting with another can be deter<lb/>mined only from the seams in the rocks. For example, if a principal <lb/>vein runs from the east to the west, the rock seams descend in depth <lb/>likewise from the east toward the west, and the associated vein which <lb/>joins with the principal vein, whether it runs from the south or the north, <lb/>has its rock seams extending in the same way as its own, and they do not <lb/>conform with the seams in the rock of the principal vein—which remain <lb/>the same after the junction—unless the associated vein proceeds in the same <lb/>direction as the principal vein. In that case we name the broader vein the <lb/>principal one, and the narrower the associated vein. But if the principal <lb/>vein splits, the rock seams which belong respectively to the parts, keep <lb/>the same course when descending in depth as those of the principal vein.</s>

<s>But enough of <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> their junctions and divisions. Now <lb/>we come to <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/> A <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> may either cross a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or join with it, or it may be cut by a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> and be divided into parts.</s>

<s>A, C—<emph type="italics"/>Vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> CROSSING A <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/> B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/> D, E—<emph type="italics"/>Vena <lb/>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> WHICH JUNCTIONS WITH A <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/> F—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/> G—<emph type="italics"/>Vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>H, I—ITS DIVIDED PARTS. K—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> WHICH DIVIDES THE <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Finally, a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> has a “beginning” (<emph type="italics"/>origo<emph.end type="italics"/>), an “end” (<emph type="italics"/>finis<emph.end type="italics"/>), a <lb/>“head” (<emph type="italics"/>caput<emph.end type="italics"/>), and a “tail” (<emph type="italics"/>cauda<emph.end type="italics"/>). That part whence it takes its rise <lb/>is said to be its “beginning,” that in which it terminates the “end.” Its <lb/>“head”<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> is that part which emerges into daylight; its “tail” that part <lb/>which is hidden in the earth. But miners have no need to seek the <lb/>“beginning” of veins, as formerly the kings of Egypt sought for the source <lb/>of the Nile, but it is enough for them to discover some other part of the vein <lb/>and to recognise its direction, for seldom can either the “beginning” or the <lb/>“end” be found. The direction in which the head of the vein comes into <lb/>the light, or the direction toward which the tail extends, is indicated by its <lb/>footwall and hangingwall. The latter is said to hang, and the former to lie. <lb/>The vein rests on the footwall, and the hangingwall overhangs it; thus, <lb/>when we descend a shaft, the part to which we turn the face is the foot<lb/>wall and seat of the vein, that to which we turn the back is the hanging<lb/>wall. Also in another way, the head accords with the footwall and the tail <lb/>with the hangingwall, for if the footwall is toward the south, the vein <lb/>extends its head into the light toward the south; and the hangingwall, <lb/>because it is always opposite to the footwall, is then toward the north. <lb/>Consequently the vein extends its tail toward the north if it is an inclined <lb/><emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/> Similarly, we can determine with regard to east and west <lb/>and the subordinate and their intermediate directions. A <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which descends into the earth may be either vertical, inclined, or crooked, <lb/>the footwall of an inclined vein is easily distinguished from the hangingwall, <lb/>but it is not so with a vertical vein; and again, the footwall of a crooked <lb/>vein is inverted and changed into the hangingwall, and contrariwise the <lb/>hangingwall is twisted into the footwall, but very many of these crooked <lb/>veins may be turned back to vertical or inclined ones.</s>

<s>A—THE “BEGINNING” (<emph type="italics"/>origo<emph.end type="italics"/>). B—THE “END” (<emph type="italics"/>finis<emph.end type="italics"/>). C—THE “HEAD” (<emph type="italics"/>caput<emph.end type="italics"/>). <lb/>D—THE “TAIL” (<emph type="italics"/>cauda<emph.end type="italics"/>).</s>

<s>A <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> has only a “beginning” and an “end,” and in the place <lb/>of the “head” and “tail” it has two sides.</s>

<s>A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C, D—THE “SIDES.”</s>

<s>A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C—THE “HEAD.” D—THE “TAIL.” <lb/>E—TRANSVERSE VEIN.</s>

<s>A <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/> has a “beginning,” an “end,” a “head,” and a <lb/>“tail,” just as a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/> Moreover, a <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata,<emph.end type="italics"/> and likewise <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> are often cut through by a transverse <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Stringers (<emph type="italics"/>fibrae<emph.end type="italics"/>)<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>, which are little veins, are classified into <emph type="italics"/>fibrae trans<lb/>versae, fibrae obliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> which cut the vein obliquely, <emph type="italics"/>fibrae sociae, <lb/>fibrae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>fibrae incumbentes.<emph.end type="italics"/> The <emph type="italics"/>fibra transversa<emph.end type="italics"/> crosses <lb/>the vein; the <emph type="italics"/>fibra obliqua<emph.end type="italics"/> crosses the vein obliquely; the <emph type="italics"/>fibra socia<emph.end type="italics"/> joins <lb/>with the vein itself; the <emph type="italics"/>fibra dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> like the <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> penetrates <lb/>through it; but the <emph type="italics"/>fibra dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> as well as the <emph type="italics"/>fibra profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> is usually <lb/>found associated with a vein.</s>

<s>The <emph type="italics"/>fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"/> does not descend as deeply into the earth as the <lb/>other stringers, but lies on the vein, as it were, from the surface to the <lb/>hangingwall or footwall, from which it is named <emph type="italics"/>Subdialis.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>In truth, as to direction, junctions, and divisions, the stringers are not <lb/>different from the veins.<lb/></s>

<s>A, B—VEINS. C—TRANSVERSE STRINGER. D—OBLIQUE STRINGER. <lb/>E—ASSOCIATED STRINGER. F—<emph type="italics"/>Fibra dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>A—VEIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"/> FROM THE SURFACE OF THE HANGINGWALL. C—SAME <lb/>FROM THE FOOTWALL.</s>

<s>Lastly, the seams, which are the very finest stringers (<emph type="italics"/>fibrae<emph.end type="italics"/>), divide <lb/>the rock, and occur sometimes frequently, sometimes rarely. From <lb/>whatever direction the vein comes, its seams always turn their heads <lb/>toward the light in the same direction. But, while the seams usually run <lb/>from one point of the compass to another immediately opposite it, as <lb/>for instance, from east to west, if hard stringers divert them, it may <lb/>happen that these very seams, which before were running from east to <lb/>west, then contrariwise proceed from west to east, and the direction of <lb/>the rocks is thus inverted. In such a case, the direction of the veins is <lb/>judged, not by the direction of the seams which occur rarely, but by those <lb/>which constantly recur.</s>

<s>A—SEAMS WHICH PROCEED FROM THE EAST. B—THE INVERSE.</s>

<s>Both veins or stringers may be solid or drusy, or barren of minerals, <lb/>or pervious to water. Solid veins contain no water and very little air. The <lb/>drusy veins rarely contain water; they often contain air. Those which <lb/>are barren of minerals often carry water. Solid veins and stringers con<lb/>sist sometimes of hard materials, sometimes of soft, and sometimes of a <lb/>kind of medium between the two.</s>

<s>A—SOLID VEIN. B—SOLID STRINGER. C—CAVERNOUS VEIN. D—CAVERNOUS <lb/>STRINGER. E—BARREN VEIN. F—BARREN STRINGER.</s>

<s>But to return to veins. A great number of miners consider<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> that the <lb/>best veins in depth are those which run from the VI or VII direction of the <lb/>east to the VI or VII direction of the west, through a mountain slope which <lb/>inclines to the north; and whose hangingwalls are in the south, and whose <lb/>footwalls are in the north, and which have their heads rising to the north, <lb/>as explained before, always like the footwall, and finally, whose rock <lb/>seams turn their heads to the east. And the veins which are the next

<pb pagenum="74"/>best are those which, on the contrary, extend from the VI or VII direction <lb/>of the west to the VI or VII direction of the east, through the slope of a <lb/>mountain which similarly inclines to the north. whose hangingwalls <lb/>are also in the south, whose footwalls are in the north, and whose <lb/>heads rise toward the north; and lastly, whose rock seams raise <lb/>their heads toward the west. In the third place, they recommend those <lb/>veins which extend from XII north to XII south, through the slope <lb/>of a mountain which faces east; whose hangingwalls are in the <lb/>west, whose footwalls are in the east; whose heads rise toward <lb/>the east; and whose rock seams raise their heads toward the north. <lb/>Therefore they devote all their energies to those veins, and give very little <lb/>or nothing to those whose heads, or the heads of whose rock seams rise <lb/>toward the south or west. For although they say these veins some<lb/>times show bright specks of pure metal adhering to the stones, or they come <lb/>upon lumps of metal, yet these are so few and far between that despite them <lb/>it is not worth the trouble to excavate such veins; and miners who persevere <lb/>in digging in the hope of coming upon a quantity of metal, always lose their <lb/>time and trouble. And they say that from veins of this kind, since the sun's <lb/>rays draw out the metallic material, very little metal is gained. But in <lb/>this matter the actual experience of the miners who thus judge of the veins <lb/>does not always agree with their opinions, nor is their reasoning sound; <lb/>since indeed the veins which run from east to west through the slope of a <lb/>mountain which inclines to the south, whose heads rise likewise to the <lb/>south, are not less charged with metals, than those to which miners are <lb/>wont to accord the first place in productiveness; as in recent years has been <lb/>proved by the St. Lorentz vein at Abertham, which our countrymen call <lb/>Gottsgaab, for they have dug out of it a large quantity of pure silver; and <lb/>lately a vein in Annaberg, called by the name of Himmelsch hoz<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>, has made it

<pb pagenum="75"/>plain by the production of much silver that veins which extend from the <lb/>north to the south, with their heads rising toward the west, are no less rich <lb/>in metals than those whose heads rise toward the east.</s>

<s>It may be denied that the heat of the sun draws the metallic material <lb/>out of these veins; for though it draws up vapours from the surface of the <lb/>ground, the rays of the sun do not penetrate right down to the depths; because <lb/>the air of a tunnel which is covered and enveloped by solid earth to the depth of <lb/>only two fathoms is cold in summer, for the intermediate earth holds in check <lb/>the force of the sun. Having observed this fact, the inhabitants and dwellers <lb/>of very hot regions lie down by day in caves which protect them from the <lb/>excessive ardour of the sun. Therefore it is unlikely that the sun draws <lb/>out from within the earth the metallic bodies. Indeed, it cannot even dry <lb/>the moisture of many places abounding in veins, because they are pro<lb/>tected and shaded by the trees. Furthermore, certain miners, out of all <lb/>the different kinds of metallic veins, choose those which I have described, <lb/>and others, on the contrary, reject copper mines which are of this sort, so <lb/>that there seems to be no reason in this. For what can be the reason if the <lb/>sun draws no copper from copper veins, that it draws silver from silver veins, <lb/>and gold from gold veins?</s>

<s>Moreover, some miners, of whose number was Calbus<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>, distinguish <lb/>between the gold-bearing rivers and streams. A river, they say, or a stream, <lb/>is most productive of fine and coarse grains of gold when it comes from the <lb/>east and flows to the west, and when it washes against the foot of mountains <lb/>which are situated in the north, and when it has a level plain toward the <lb/>south or west. In the second place, they esteem a river or a stream which <lb/>flows in the opposite course from the west toward the east, and which has <lb/>the mountains to the north and the level plain to the south. In the third <lb/>place, they esteem the river or the stream which flows from the north to the <lb/>south and washes the base of the mountains which are situated in the east. <lb/>But they say that the river or stream is least productive of gold which flows <lb/>in a contrary direction from the south to the north, and washes the base of

<pb pagenum="76"/>mountains which are situated in the west. Lastly, of the streams or rivers <lb/>which flow from the rising sun toward the setting sun, or which flow from <lb/>the northern parts to the southern parts, they favour those which approach <lb/>the nearest to the lauded ones, and say they are more productive of gold, <lb/>and the further they depart from them the less productive they are. Such <lb/>are the opinions held about rivers and streams. Now, since gold is not <lb/>generated in the rivers and streams, as we have maintained against <lb/>Albertus<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> in the book entitled “<emph type="italics"/>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causís,<emph.end type="italics"/>” Book <lb/>V, but is torn away from the veins and stringers and settled in the sands of <lb/>torrents and water-courses, in whatever direction the rivers or streams flow, <lb/>therefore it is reasonable to expect to find gold therein; which is not <lb/>opposed by experience. Nevertheless, we do not deny that gold is generated <lb/>in veins and stringers which lie under the beds of rivers or streams, as in <lb/>other places.<lb/></s>

<pb/>

<s>The third book has explained the various and <lb/>manifold varieties of veins and stringers. This <lb/>fourth book will deal with mining areas and the <lb/>method of delimiting them, and will then pass on to <lb/>the officials who are connected with mining affairs<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s>

<s>Now the miner, if the vein he has uncovered <lb/>is to his liking, first of all goes to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>to request to be granted a right to mine, this <lb/>official's special function and office being to adjudi<lb/>cate in respect of the mines. And so to the first man who has discovered <lb/>the vein the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> awards the head meer, and to others the remaining <lb/>meers, in the order in which each makes his application. The size of <lb/>a meer is measured by fathoms, which for miners are reckoned at six feet <lb/>each. The length, in fact, is that of a man's extended arms and hands <lb/>measured across his chest; but different peoples assign to it different lengths,

<pb pagenum="78"/>for among the Greeks, who called it an <foreign lang="greek">o/rguia/,</foreign> it was six feet, among the <lb/>Romans five feet. So this measure which is used by miners seems to <lb/>have come down to the Germans in accordance with the Greek mode of <lb/>reckoning. A miner's foot approaches very nearly to the length of a Greek <lb/>foot, for it exceeds it by only three-quarters of a Greek digit, but like that <lb/>of the Romans it is divided into twelve <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s>

<s>Now square fathoms are reckoned in units of one, two, three, or more <lb/>“measures”, and a “measure” is seven fathoms each way. Mining <lb/>meers are for the most part either square or elongated; in square meers all the <lb/>sides are of equal length, therefore the numbers of fathoms on the two sides <lb/>multiplied together produce the total in square fathoms. Thus, if the <lb/>shape of a “measure” is seven fathoms on every side, this number multi<lb/>plied by itself makes forty-nine square fathoms.</s>

<s>The sides of a long meer are of equal length, and similarly its ends are <lb/>equal; therefore, if the number of fathoms in one of the long sides be multi<lb/>plied by the number of fathoms in one of the ends, the total produced by the </s>

<s>SHAPE OF A SQUARE MEER.<lb/>multiplication is the total number of square fathoms in the long meer. For <lb/>example, the double measure is fourteen fathoms long and seven broad, <lb/>which two numbers multiplied together make ninety-eight square fathoms.</s>

<s>SHAPE OF A LONG MEER OR DOUBLE MEASURE.</s>

<s>Since meers vary in shape according to the different varieties of veins <lb/>it is necessary for me to go more into detail concerning them and <lb/>their measurements. If the vein is a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> the head meer is <lb/>composed of three double measures, therefore it is forty-two fathoms in <lb/>length and seven in width, which numbers multiplied together give two <lb/>hundred and ninety-four square fathoms, and by these limits the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>bounds the owner's rights in a head-meer.</s>

<s>SHAPE OF A HEAD MEER.</s>

<s>The area of every other meer consists of two double measures, on which<lb/>ever side of the head meer it lies, or whatever its number in order may be, <lb/>that is to say, whether next to the head meer, or second, third, or any later <lb/>number. Therefore, it is twenty-eight fathoms long and seven wide, so <lb/>multiplying the length by the width we get one hundred and ninety-six <lb/>square fathoms, which is the extent of the meer, and by these boundaries <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> defines the right of the owner or company over each mine.</s>

<s>SHAPE OF A MEER.</s>

<s>Now we call that part of the vein which is first discovered and mined, <lb/>the head-meer, because all the other meers run from it, just as the nerves <lb/>from the head. The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> begins his measurements from it, and the <lb/>reason why he apportions a larger area to the head-meer than to the others, is <lb/>that he may give a suitable reward to the one who first found the vein <lb/>and may encourage others to search for veins. Since meers often reach <lb/>to a torrent, or river, or stream, if the last meer cannot be completed <lb/>it is called a fraction<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. If it is the size of a double measure, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>grants the right of mining it to him who makes the first application, but if <lb/>it is the size of a single measure or a little over, he divides it between the <lb/>nearest meers on either side of it. It is the custom among miners that <lb/>the first meer beyond a stream on that part of the vein on the opposite <lb/>side is a new head-meer, and they call it the “opposite,”<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> while the <lb/>other meers beyond are only ordinary meers. Formerly every head-meer <lb/>was composed of three double measures and one single one, that is, it was <lb/>forty-nine fathoms long and seven wide, and so if we multiply these two <lb/>together we have three hundred and forty-three square fathoms, which <lb/>total gives us the area of an ancient head-meer.</s>

<s>SHAPE OF AN ANCIENT HEAD-MEER.</s>

<s>Every ancient meer was formed of a single measure, that is to say, it <lb/>was seven fathoms in length and width, and was therefore square. In <lb/>memory of which miners even now call the width of every meer which is <lb/>located on a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> a “square”<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>. The following was formerly the <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="81"/>usual method of delimiting a vein: as soon as the miner found metal, he <lb/>gave information to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the tithe-gatherer, who either <lb/>proceeded personally from the town to the mountains, or sent thither men <lb/>of good repute, at least two in number, to inspect the metal-bearing vein. <lb/>Thereupon, if they thought it of sufficient importance to survey, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>again having gone forth on an appointed day, thus questioned him who first <lb/>found the vein, concerning the vein and the diggings: “Which is your <lb/>vein?” “Which digging carried metal?” Then the discoverer, pointing <lb/>his finger to his vein and diggings, indicated them, and next the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>ordered him to approach the windlass and place two fingers of his right hand <lb/>upon his head, and swear this oath in a clear voice: “I swear by God and <lb/>all the Saints, and I call them all to witness, that this is my vein; and more<lb/>over if it is not mine, may neither this my head nor these my hands henceforth <lb/>perform their functions.” Then the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> having started from the <lb/>centre of the windlass, proceeded to measure the vein with a cord, and to <lb/>give the measured portion to the discoverer,—in the first instance a half and <lb/>then three full measures; afterward one to the King or Prince, another to <lb/>his Consort, a third to the Master of the Horse, a fourth to the Cup-bearer, <lb/>a fifth to the Groom of the Chamber, a sixth to himself. Then, starting <lb/>from the other side of the windlass, he proceeded to measure the vein in a <lb/>similar manner. Thus the discoverer of the vein obtained the head-meer, <lb/>that is, seven single measures; but the King or Ruler, his Consort, the leading <lb/>dignitaries, and lastly, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> obtained two measures each, or two <lb/>ancient meers. This is the reason there are to be found at Freiberg in Meissen <lb/>so many shafts with so many intercommunications on a single vein—which are <lb/>to a great extent destroyed by age. If, however, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> had already <lb/>fixed the boundaries of the meers on one side of the shaft for the benefit of <lb/>some other discoverer, then for those dignitaries I have just mentioned, <lb/>as many meers as he was unable to award on that side he duplicated <lb/>on the other. But if on both sides of the shaft he had already defined the <lb/>boundaries of meers, he proceeded to measure out only that part of the <lb/>vein which remained free, and thus it sometimes happened that some of <lb/>those persons I have mentioned obtained no meer at all. To-day, though <lb/>that old-established custom is observed, the method of allotting the vein <lb/>and granting title has been changed. As I have explained above, the head<lb/>meer consists of three double measures, and each other meer of two <lb/>measures, and the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> grants one each of the meers to him who <lb/>makes the first application. The King or Prince, since all metal is taxed, is <lb/>himself content with that, which is usually one-tenth.</s>

<s>Of the width of every meer, whether old or new, one-half lies on the <lb/>footwall side of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> and one half on the hangingwall side. If <lb/>the vein descends vertically into the earth, the boundaries similarly descend

<pb pagenum="82"/>vertically; but if the vein inclines, the boundaries likewise will be inclined. <lb/>The owner always holds the mining right for the width of the meer, however <lb/>far the vein descends into the depth of the earth.<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> Further, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>on application being made to him, grants to one owner or company a right

<pb pagenum="83"/>over not only the head meer, or another meer, but also the head meer and <lb/>the next meer or two adjoining meers. So much for the shape of meers <lb/>and their dimensions in the case of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>I now come to the case of <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/> The boundaries of the areas

<pb pagenum="84"/>on such veins are not all measured by one method. For in some places the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> gives them shapes similar to the shapes of the meers on <emph type="italics"/>venae <lb/>profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> in which case the head-meer is composed of three double <lb/>measures, and the area of every other mine of two measures, as I have

<pb pagenum="85"/>explained more fully above. In this case, however, he measures the meers <lb/>with a cord, not only forward and backward from the ends of the head<lb/>meer, as he is wont to do in the case where the owner of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> has <lb/>a meer granted him, but also from the sides. In this way meers are marked

<pb pagenum="86"/>out when a torrent or some other force of Nature has laid open a <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>dílatata<emph.end type="italics"/> in a valley, so that it appears either on the slope of a mountain <lb/>or hill or on a plain. Elsewhere the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> doubles the width of the <lb/>head-meer and it is made fourteen fathoms wide, while the width of each of <lb/>the other meers remains single, that is seven fathoms, but the length is not <lb/>defined by boundaries. In some places the head-meer consists of three <lb/>double measures, but has a width of fourteen fathoms and a length of <lb/>twenty-one.</s>

<s>SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.</s>

<s>In the same way, every other meer is composed of two measures, <lb/>doubled in the same fashion, so that it is fourteen fathoms in width and <lb/>of the same length.</s>

<s>SHAPE OF EVERY OTHER MEER.</s>

<s>Elsewhere every meer, whether a head-meer or other meer, comprises <lb/>forty-two fathoms in width and as many in length.</s>

<s>In other places the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> gives the owner or company all of some <lb/>locality defined by rivers or little valleys as boundaries. But the boundaries <lb/>of every such area of whatsoever shape it be, descend vertically into the <lb/>earth; so the owner of that area has a right over that part of any <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> which lies beneath the first one, just as the owner of the meer on <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> has a right over so great a part of all other <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>as lies within the boundaries of his meer; for just as wherever one <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> is found, another is found not far away, so wherever one <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>dílatata<emph.end type="italics"/> is found, others are found beneath it.</s>

<s>Finally, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> divides <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/> areas in different ways, <lb/>for in some localities the head-meer is composed of three measures, doubled <lb/>in such a way that it is fourteen fathoms wide and twenty-one long; and <lb/>every other meer consists of two measures doubled, and is square, that is, <lb/>fourteen fathoms wide and as many long. In some places the head-meer <lb/>is composed of three single measures, and its width is seven fathoms and <lb/>its length twenty-one, which two numbers multiplied together make one <lb/>hundred and forty-seven square fathoms.</s>

<s>SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.</s>

<s>Each other meer consists of one double measure. In some places the <lb/>head-meer is given the shape of a double measure, and every other meer that <lb/>of a single measure. Lastly, in other places the owner or a company is given <lb/>a right over some complete specified locality bounded by little streams, <lb/>valleys, or other limits. Furthermore, all meers on <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> as in <lb/>the case of <emph type="italics"/>dílatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> descend vertically into the depths of the earth, and <lb/>each meer has the boundaries so determined as to prevent disputes arising <lb/>between the owners of neighbouring mines.</s>

<s>The boundary marks in use among miners formerly consisted only of <lb/>stones, and from this their name was derived, for now the marks of a <lb/>boundary are called “boundary stones.” To-day a row of posts, made either <lb/>of oak or pine, and strengthened at the top with iron rings to prevent them <lb/>from being damaged, is fixed beside the boundary stones to make them <lb/>more conspicuous. By this method in former times the boundaries of the <lb/>fields were marked by stones or posts, not only as written of in the book “<emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Limítíbus Agrorum,<emph.end type="italics"/>”<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> but also as testified to by the songs of the poets. Such

<pb pagenum="88"/>then is the shape of the meers, varying in accordance with the different <lb/>kinds of veins.</s>

<s>Now tunnels are of two sorts, one kind having no right of property, the <lb/>other kind having some limited right. For when a miner in some particular <lb/>locality is unable to open a vein on account of a great quantity of water, he <lb/>runs a wide ditch, open at the top and three feet deep, starting on the slope <lb/>and running up to the place where the vein is found. Through it the water <lb/>flows off, so that the place is made dry and fit for digging. But if it is not <lb/>sufficiently dried by this open ditch, or if a shaft which he has now for <lb/>the first time begun to sink is suffering from overmuch water, he goes to <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and asks that official to give him the right for a tunnel. <lb/>Having obtained leave, he drives the tunnel, and into its drains all the <lb/>water is diverted, so that the place or shaft is made fit for digging. If <lb/>it is not seven fathoms from the surface of the earth to the bottom of this <lb/>kind of tunnel, the owner possesses no rights except this one: namely, that <lb/>the owners of the mines, from whose leases the owner of the tunnel extracts <lb/>gold or silver, themselves pay him the sum he expends within their meer in <lb/>driving the tunnel through it.</s>

<s>To a depth or height of three and a half fathoms above and below the <lb/>mouth of the tunnel, no one is allowed to begin another tunnel. The reason <lb/>for this is that this kind of a tunnel is liable to be changed into the other <lb/>kind which has a complete right of property, when it drains the meers to a <lb/>depth of seven fathoms, or to ten, according as the old custom in each place <lb/>acquires the force of law. In such case this second kind of tunnel has the <lb/>following right; in the first place, whatever metal the owner, or company <lb/>owning it, finds in any meer through which it is driven, all belongs to the <lb/>tunnel owner within a height or depth of one and a quarter fathoms. In <lb/>the years which are not long passed, the owner of a tunnel possessed all the <lb/>metal which a miner standing at the bottom of the tunnel touched with <lb/>a bar, whose handle did not exceed the customary length; but nowadays <lb/>a certain prescribed height and width is allowed to the owner of the tunnel, <lb/>lest the owners of the mines be damaged, if the length of the bar be <lb/>longer than usual. Further, every metal-yielding mine which is drained <lb/>and supplied with ventilation by a tunnel, is taxed in the proportion of one<lb/>ninth for the benefit of the owner of the tunnel. But if several tunnels of <lb/>this kind are driven through one mining area which is yielding metals, and <lb/>all drain it and supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug <lb/>out from above the bottom of each tunnel, one-ninth is given to the owner of <lb/>that tunnel; of that which is dug out below the bottom of each tunnel, <lb/>one-ninth is in each case given to the owner of the tunnel which follows <lb/>next in order below. But if the lower tunnel does not yet drain the shaft of <lb/>that meer nor supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug out <lb/>below the bottom of the higher tunnel, one-ninth part is given to the owner <lb/>of such upper tunnel. Moreover, no one tunnel deprives another of its <lb/>right to one-ninth part, unless it be a lower one, from the bottom of which <lb/>to the bottom of the one above must not be less than seven or ten fathoms,

<pb pagenum="89"/>according as the king or prince has decreed. Further, of all the money <lb/>which the owner of the tunnel has spent on his tunnel while driving it <lb/>through a meer, the owner of that meer pays one-fourth part. If he does <lb/>not do so he is not allowed to make use of the drains.</s>

<s>Finally, with regard to whatever veins are discovered by the owner <lb/>at whose expense the tunnel is driven, the right of which has not been <lb/>already awarded to anyone, on the application of such owner the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>grants him a right of a head-meer, or of a head-meer together with the next <lb/>meer. Ancient custom gives the right for a tunnel to be driven in any <lb/>direction for an unlimited length. Further, to-day he who commences a <lb/>tunnel is given, on his application, not only the right over the tunnel, but <lb/>even the head and sometimes the next meer also. In former days the owner <lb/>of the tunnel obtained only so much ground as an arrow shot from the bow <lb/>might cover, and he was allowed to pasture cattle therein. In a case where <lb/>the shafts of several meers on some vein could not be worked on account of <lb/>the great quantity of water, ancient custom also allowed the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> to <lb/>grant the right of a large meer to anyone who would drive a tunnel. When, <lb/>however, he had driven a tunnel as far as the old shafts and had found <lb/>metal, he used to return to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and request him to bound and <lb/>mark off the extent of his right to a meer. Thereupon, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>together with a certain number of citizens of the town—in whose place <lb/>Jurors have now succeeded—used to proceed to the mountain and mark off <lb/>with boundary stones a large meer, which consisted of seven double <lb/>measures, that is to say, it was ninety-eight fathoms long and seven wide, <lb/>which two numbers multiplied together make six hundred and eighty-six <lb/>square fathoms.</s>

<s>LARGE AREA.</s>

<s>But each of these early customs has been changed, and we now employ <lb/>the new method.</s>

<s>I have spoken of tunnels; I will now speak about the division of owner<lb/>ship in mines and tunnels. One owner is allowed to possess and to work <lb/>one, two, three, or more whole meers, or similarly one or more separate <lb/>tunnels, provided he conforms to the decrees of the laws relating to <lb/>metals, and to the orders of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/> And because he alone pro<lb/>vides the expenditure of money on the mines, if they yield metal he alone <lb/>obtains the product from them. But when large and frequent expenditures <lb/>are necessary in mining, he to whom the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> first gave the right

<pb pagenum="90"/>often admits others to share with him, and they join with him in forming a <lb/>company, and they each lay out a part of the expense and share with him <lb/>the profit or loss of the mine. But the title of the mines or tunnels remains <lb/>undivided, although for the purpose of dividing the expense and profit it <lb/>may be said each mine or tunnel is divided into parts<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s>

<s>This division is made in various ways. A mine, and the same thing <lb/>must be understood with regard to a tunnel, may be divided into two halves, <lb/>that is into two similar portions, by which method two owners spend <lb/>an equal amount on it and draw an equal profit from it, for each possesses <lb/>one half. Sometimes it is divided into four shares, by which compact <lb/>four persons can be owners, so that each possesses one-fourth, or also two <lb/>persons, so that one possesses three-fourths, and the other only one-fourth<gap/><lb/>or three owners, so that the first has two-fourths, and the second and third <lb/>one-fourth each. Sometimes it is divided into eight shares, by which plan <lb/>there may be eight owners, so that each is possessor of one-eighth; some<lb/>times there are two owners, so that one has five-sixths<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> together with one <lb/>twenty-fourth, and the other one-eighth; or there may be three owners, in <lb/>which one has three-quarters and the second and third each one-eighth; <lb/>or it may be divided so that one owner has seven-twelfths, together with <lb/>one twenty-fourth, a second owner has one-quarter, and a third owner has <lb/>one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half, the second one-third and one <lb/>twenty-fourth, and the third one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half, <lb/>as before, and the second and third each one-quarter; or so that the first <lb/>and second each have one-third and one twenty-fourth, and the third one<lb/>quarter; and in the same way the divisions may be adjusted in all the other <lb/>proportions. The different ways of dividing the shares originate from the <lb/>different proportions of ownership. Sometimes a mine is divided into <lb/>sixteen parts, each of which is a twenty-fourth and a forty-eighth; or it may <lb/>be divided into thirty-two parts, each of which is a forty-eighth and half a <lb/>seventy-second and a two hundred and eighty-eighth; or into sixty-four <lb/>parts of which each share is one seventy-second and one five hundred and <lb/>seventy-sixth; or finally, into one hundred and twenty-eight parts, any one <lb/>of which is half a seventy-second and half of one five hundred and seventy<lb/>sixth.</s>

<s>Now an iron mine either remains undivided or is divided into two, <lb/>four, or occasionally more shares, which depends on the excellence of the <lb/>veins. But a lead, bismuth, or tin mine, and likewise one of copper or even <lb/>quicksilver, is also divided into eight shares, or into sixteen or thirty-two, <lb/>and less commonly into sixty-four. The number of the divisions of the silver <lb/>mines at Freiberg in Meissen did not formerly progress beyond this; but <lb/>

<pb pagenum="91"/>within the memory of our fathers, miners have divided a silver mine, and <lb/>similarly the tunnel at Schneeberg, first of all into one hundred and twenty<lb/>eight shares, of which one hundred and twenty-six are the property of <lb/>private owners in the mines or tunnels, one belongs to the State and one <lb/>to the Church; while in Joachimsthal only one hundred and twenty-two <lb/>shares of the mines or tunnels are the property of private owners, four <lb/>are proprietary shares, and the State and Church each have one in the <lb/>same way. To these there has lately been added in some places one share <lb/>for the most needy of the population, which makes one hundred and twenty<lb/>nine shares. It is only the private owners of mines who pay contributions. <lb/>A proprietary holder, though he holds as many as four shares such as I have <lb/>described, does not pay contributions, but gratuitiously supplies the owners <lb/>of the mines with sufficient wood from his forests for timbering, machinery, <lb/>buildings, and smelting; nor do those belonging to the State, Church, and <lb/>the poor pay contributions, but the proceeds are used to build or repair <lb/>public works and sacred buildings, and to support the most needy with the <lb/>profits which they draw from the mines. Furthermore, in our State, the <lb/>one hundred and twenty-eighth share has begun to be divided into two, <lb/>four, or eight parts, or even into three, six, twelve, or smaller parts. This <lb/>is done when one mine is created out of two, for then the owner who formerly <lb/>possessed one-half becomes owner of one-fourth; he who possessed one<lb/>fourth, of one-eighth; he who possessed one-third, of one-sixth; he who <lb/>possessed one-sixth, of one-twelfth. Since our countrymen call a mine a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>symposíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> that is, a drinking bout, we are accustomed to call the money which <lb/>the owners subscribe a <emph type="italics"/>symbolum,<emph.end type="italics"/> or a contribution<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>. For, just as those who <lb/>go to a banquet (<emph type="italics"/>symposíum<emph.end type="italics"/>) give contributions (<emph type="italics"/>symbola<emph.end type="italics"/>), so those who purpose <lb/>making large profits from mining are accustomed to contribute toward the <lb/>expenditure. However, the manager of the mine assesses the contributions <lb/>of the owners annually, or for the most part quarterly, and as often he <lb/>renders an account of receipts and expenses. At Freiberg in Meissen the <lb/>old practice was for the manager to exact a contribution from the owners <lb/>every week, and every week to distribute among them the profits of the <lb/>mines, but this practice during almost the last fifteen years has been so far <lb/>changed that contribution and distribution are made four<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> times each <lb/>year. Large or small contributions are imposed according to the number <lb/>of workmen which the mine or tunnel requires; as a result, those who <lb/>possess many shares provide many contributions. Four times a year the <lb/>owners contribute to the cost, and four times during the year the profits of <lb/>the mines are distributed among them; these are sometimes large, some<lb/>times small, according as there is more or less gold or silver or other metal <lb/>dug out. Indeed, from the St. George mine in Schneeberg the miners extracted <lb/>so much silver in a quarter of a year that silver cakes, which were worth <lb/>

<pb pagenum="92"/>1,100 Rhenish guldens, were distributed to each one hundred and twenty-eighth <lb/>share. From the Annaberg mine which is known as the Himmelich Höz, <lb/>they had a dole of eight hundred thaler; from a mine in Joachimsthal <lb/>which is named the Sternen, three hundred thaler; from the head mine at <lb/>Abertham, which is called St. Lorentz, two hundred and twenty-five thaler<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/>The more shares of which any individual is owner the more profits he takes.</s>

<s>I will now explain how the owners may lose or obtain the right over a <lb/>mine, or a tunnel, or a share. Formerly, if anyone was able to prove by <lb/>witnesses that the owners had failed to send miners for three continuous <lb/>shifts<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> deprived them of their right over the mine, and <lb/>gave the right over it to the informer, if he desired it. But although miners <lb/>preserve this custom to-day, still mining share owners who have paid <lb/>their contributions do not lose their right over their mines against their will. <lb/>Formerly, if water which had not been drawn off from the higher shaft of <lb/>some mine percolated through a vein or stringer into the shaft of another <lb/>mine and impeded their work, then the owners of the mine which suffered <lb/>the damage went to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> and complained of the loss, and he sent <lb/>to the shafts two Jurors. If they found that matters were as claimed, <lb/>the right over the mine which caused the injury was given to the owners <lb/>who suffered the injury. But this custom in certain places has been changed, <lb/>for the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> if he finds this condition of things proved in the case <lb/>of two shafts, orders the owners of the shaft which causes the injury to <lb/>contribute part of the expense to the owners of the shaft which receives the <lb/>injury; if they fail to do so, he then deprives them of their right over their <lb/>mine; on the other hand, if the owners send men to the workings to dig <lb/>and draw off the water from the shafts, they keep their right over their <lb/>mine. Formerly owners used to obtain a right over any tunnel, firstly, if <lb/>in its bottom they made drains and cleansed them of mud and sand so that <lb/>the water might flow out without any hindrance, and restored those drains <lb/>which had been damaged; secondly, if they provided shafts or openings to <lb/>supply the miners with air, and restored those which had fallen in; and <lb/>finally, if three miners were employed continuously in driving the tunnel. <lb/>But the principal reason for losing the title to a tunnel was that for a period <lb/>of eight days no miner was employed upon it; therefore, when anyone <lb/>was able to prove by witnesses that the owners of a tunnel had not done <lb/>these things, he brought his accusation before the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> who, after <lb/>going out from the town to the tunnel and inspecting the drains and the <lb/>ventilating machines and everything else, and finding the charge to be true, <lb/>placed the witness under oath, and asked him: “Whose tunnel is this at the <lb/>present time?” The witness would reply: “The King's” or “The <lb/>

<pb pagenum="93"/>Prince's.” Thereupon the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> gave the right over the tunnel to <lb/>the first applicant. This was the severe rule under which the owners at one <lb/>time lost their rights over a tunnel; but its severity is now considerably <lb/>mitigated, for the owners do not now forthwith lose their right over a tunnel <lb/>through not having cleaned out the drains and restored the shafts or <lb/>ventilation holes which have suffered damage; but the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> orders <lb/>the tunnel manager to do it, and if he does not obey, the authorities fine <lb/>the tunnel. Also it is sufficient for one miner to be engaged in driving the <lb/>tunnel. Moreover, if the owner of a tunnel sets boundaries at a fixed spot <lb/>in the rocks and stops driving the tunnel, he may obtain a right over it so <lb/>far as he has gone, provided the drains are cleaned out and ventilation <lb/>holes are kept in repair. But any other owner is allowed to start from the <lb/>established mark and drive the tunnel further, if he pays the former owners <lb/>of the tunnel as much money every three months as the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> decides <lb/>ought to be paid.</s>

<s>There remain for discussion, the shares in the mines and tunnels. <lb/>Formerly if anybody conveyed these shares to anyone else, and the latter <lb/>had once paid his contribution, the seller<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> was bound to stand by his bargain, <lb/>and this custom to-day has the force of law. But if the seller denied that the <lb/>contribution had been paid, while the buyer of the shares declared that he could <lb/>prove by witnesses that he had paid his contribution to the other proprietors, <lb/>and a case arose for trial, then the evidence of the other proprietors carried <lb/>more weight than the oath of the seller. To-day the buyer of the shares proves <lb/>that he has paid his contribution by a document which the mine or tunnel <lb/>manager always gives each one; if the buyer has contributed no money <lb/>there is no obligation on the seller to keep his bargain. Formerly, as I have <lb/>said above, the proprietors used to contribute money weekly, but now con<lb/>tributions are paid four times each year. To-day, if for the space of a month <lb/>anyone does not take proceedings against the seller of the shares for the con<lb/>tribution, the right of taking proceedings is lost. But when the Clerk has <lb/>already entered on the register the shares which had been conveyed or <lb/>bought, none of the owners loses his right over the share unless the money <lb/>is not contributed which the manager of the mine or tunnel has demanded <lb/>from the owner or his agent. Formerly, if on the application of the manager <lb/>the owner or his agent did not pay, the matter was referred to the <emph type="italics"/>Berg<lb/>meister,<emph.end type="italics"/> who ordered the owner or his agent to make his contribution; then <lb/>if he failed to contribute for three successive weeks, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> gave <lb/>the right to his shares to the first applicant. To-day this custom is un<lb/>changed, for if owners fail for the space of a month to pay the contribu<lb/>tions which the manager of the mine has imposed on them, on a stated day <lb/>their names are proclaimed aloud and struck off the list of owners, in <lb/>the presence of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> the Jurors, the Mining Clerk, and the Share <lb/>Clerk, and each of such shares is entered on the proscribed list. If, how

<pb pagenum="94"/>ever, on the third, or at latest the fourth day, they pay their contributions <lb/>to the manager of the mine or tunnel, and pay the money which is due from <lb/>them to the Share Clerk, he removes their shares from the proscribed <lb/>list. They are not thereupon restored to their former position unless the <lb/>other owners consent; in which respect the custom now in use differs from <lb/>the old practice, for to-day if the owners of shares constituting anything <lb/>over half the mine consent to the restoration of those who have been <lb/>proscribed, the others are obliged to consent whether they wish to or not. <lb/>Formerly, unless such restoration had been sanctioned by the approval of <lb/>the owners of one hundred shares, those who had been proscribed were not <lb/>restored to their former position.</s>

<s>The procedure in suits relating to shares was formerly as follows: he <lb/>who instituted a suit and took legal proceedings against another in respect <lb/>of the shares, used to make a formal charge against the accused possessor <lb/>before the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster.<emph.end type="italics"/> This was done either at his house or in some public <lb/>place or at the mines, once each day for three days if the shares belonged to <lb/>an old mine, and three times in eight days if they belonged to a head<lb/>meer. But if he could not find the possessor of the shares in these places, it <lb/>was valid and effectual to make the accusation against him at the house of <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster.<emph.end type="italics"/> When, however, he made the charge for the third time, he <lb/>used to bring with him a notary, whom the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> would interrogate: <lb/>“Have I earned the fee?” and who would respond: “You have earned <lb/>it”; thereupon the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> would give the right over the shares to him <lb/>who made the accusation, and the accuser in turn would pay down the <lb/>customary fee to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/> After these proceedings, if the man whom <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> had deprived of his shares dwelt in the city, one of the <lb/>proprietors of the mine or of the head-mine was sent to him to acquaint him <lb/>with the facts, but if he dwelt elsewhere proclamation was made in some <lb/>public place, or at the mine, openly and in a loud voice in the hearing of <lb/>numbers of miners. Nowadays a date is defined for the one who is answer<lb/>able for the debt of shares or money, and information is given the accused <lb/>by an official if he is near at hand, or if he is absent, a letter is sent him; <lb/>nor is the right over his shares taken from anyone for the space of one and <lb/>a half months. So much for these matters.</s>

<s>Now, before I deal with the methods which must be employed in <lb/>working, I will speak of the duties of the Mining Prefect, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>the Jurors, the Mining Clerk, the Share Clerk, the manager of the mine <lb/>or tunnel, the foreman of the mine or tunnel, and the workmen.</s>

<s>To the Mining Prefect, whom the King or Prince appoints as his deputy, <lb/>all men of all races, ages, and rank, give obedience and submission. He <lb/>governs and regulates everything at his discretion, ordering those things <lb/>which are useful and advantageous in mining operations, and prohibiting <lb/>those which are to the contrary. He levies penalties and punishes offenders; <lb/>he arranges disputes which the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> has been unable to settle, and if <lb/>even he cannot arrange them, he allows the owners who are at variance over <lb/>some point to proceed to litigation; he even lays down the law, gives orders

<pb pagenum="95"/>as a magistrate, or bids them leave their rights in abeyance, and he deter<lb/>mines the pay of persons who hold any post or office. He is present in <lb/>person when the mine managers present their quarterly accounts of profits <lb/>and expenses, and generally represents the King or Prince and upholds his <lb/>dignity. The Athenians in this way set Thucydides, the famous historian, <lb/>over the mines of Thasos<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s>

<s>Next in power to the Mining Prefect comes the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> since he <lb/>has jurisdiction over all who are connected with mines, with a few exceptions, <lb/>which are the Tithe Gatherer, the Cashier, the Silver Refiner, the Master <lb/>of the Mint, and the Coiners themselves. Fraudulent, negligent, or dissolute <lb/>men he either throws into prison, or deprives of promotion, or fines; <lb/>of these fines, part is given as a tribute to those in power. When the mine <lb/>owners have a dispute over boundaries he arbitrates it; or if he cannot <lb/>settle the dispute, he pronounces judgment jointly with the Jurors; <lb/>from them, however, an appeal lies to the Mining Prefect. He transcribes <lb/>his decrees in a book and sets up the records in public. It is also his duty <lb/>to grant the right over the mines to those who apply, and to confirm their <lb/>rights; he also must measure the mines, and fix their boundaries, and see <lb/>that the mine workings are not allowed to become dangerous. Some of <lb/>these duties he observes on fixed days; for on Wednesday in the presence <lb/>of the Jurors he confirms the rights over the mines which he has granted, <lb/>settles disputes about boundaries, and pronounces judgments. On Mondays, <lb/>Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, he rides up to the mines, and dismounting <lb/>at some of them explains what is required to be done, or considers the <lb/>boundaries which are under controversy. On Saturday all the mine managers <lb/>and mine foremen render an account of the money which they have spent <lb/>on the mines during the preceding week, and the Mining Clerk transcribes <lb/>this account into the register of expenses. Formerly, for one Principality <lb/>there was one <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> who used to create all the judges and exercise <lb/>jurisdiction and control over them; for every mine had its own judge, <lb/>just as to-day each locality has a <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> in his place, the name alone <lb/>being changed. To this ancient <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> who used to dwell at Freiberg in <lb/>Meissen, disputes were referred; hence right up to the present time the one <lb/>at Freiberg still has the power of pronouncing judgment when mine owners <lb/>who are engaged in disputes among themselves appeal to him. The old <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> could try everything which was presented to him in any mine <lb/>whatsoever; whereas the judge could only try the things which were done <lb/>in his own district, in the same way that every modern <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> can.</s>

<s>To each <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> is attached a clerk, who writes out a schedule <lb/>signifying to the applicant for a right over a mine, the day and hour on which <lb/>the right is granted, the name of the applicant, and the location of the mine. <lb/>He also affixes at the entrance to the mine, quarterly, at the appointed time, <lb/>a sheet of paper on which is shown how much contribution must be paid to <lb/>the manager of the mine. These notices are prepared jointly with the

<pb pagenum="96"/>Mining Clerk, and in common they receive the fee rendered by the foremen <lb/>of the separate mines.</s>

<s>I now come to the Jurors, who are men experienced in mining <lb/>matters and of good repute. Their number is greater or less as there <lb/>are few or more mines; thus if there are ten mines there will be five <lb/>pairs of Jurors, like a <emph type="italics"/>decemviral college<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>. Into however many <lb/>divisions the total number of mines has been divided, so many divisions <lb/>has the body of Jurors; each pair of Jurors usually visits some of <lb/>the mines whose administration is under their supervision on every <lb/>day that workmen are employed; it is usually so arranged that they <lb/>visit all the mines in the space of fourteen days. They inspect and con<lb/>sider all details, and deliberate and consult with the mine foreman on <lb/>matters relating to the underground workings, machinery, timbering, and <lb/>everything else. They also jointly with the mine foreman from time to <lb/>time make the price per fathom to the workmen for mining the ore, fixing <lb/>it at a high or low price, according to whether the rock is hard or soft; if, <lb/>however, the contractors find that an unforeseen and unexpected hardness <lb/>occurs, and for that reason have difficulty and delay in carrying out their <lb/>work, the Jurors allow them something in excess of the price fixed; <lb/>while if there is a softness by reason of water, and the work is done more <lb/>easily and quickly, they deduct something from the price. Further, if the <lb/>Jurors discover manifest negligence or fraud on the part of any foreman <lb/>or workman, they first admonish or reprimand him as to his duties and <lb/>obligations, and if he does not become more diligent and improve, the matter <lb/>is reported to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> who by right of his authority deprives such <lb/>persons of their functions and office, or, if they have committed a crime, <lb/>throws them into prison. Lastly, because the Jurors have been given <lb/>to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> as councillors and advisors, in their absence he does not <lb/>confirm the right over any mine, nor measure the mines, nor fix their <lb/>boundaries, nor settle disputes about boundaries, nor pronounce judgment, <lb/>nor, finally, does he without them listen to any account of profits and <lb/>expenditure.</s>

<s>Now the Mining Clerk enters each mine in his books, the new mines <lb/>in one book, the old mines which have been re-opened in another. This <lb/>is done in the following way: first is written the name of the man who has <lb/>applied for the right over the mine, then the day and hour on which he <lb/>made his application, then the vein and the locality in which it is situated, <lb/>next the conditions on which the right has been given, and lastly, the day on <lb/>which the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> confirmed it. A document containing all these <lb/>particulars is also given to the person whose right over a mine has been <lb/>confirmed. The Mining Clerk also sets down in another book the names <lb/>of the owners of each mine over which the right has been confirmed; <lb/>in another any intermission of work permitted to any person for cer

<pb pagenum="97"/>tain reasons by the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister;<emph.end type="italics"/> in another the money which one mine <lb/>supplies to another for drawing off water or making machinery; and in <lb/>another the decisions of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Jurors, and the disputes <lb/>settled by them as honorary arbitrators. All these matters he enters in the <lb/>books on Wednesday of every week; if holidays fall on that day he does it <lb/>on the following Thursday. Every Saturday he enters in another book the <lb/>total expenses of the preceding week, the account of which the mine manager <lb/>has rendered; but the total quarterly expenses of each mine manager, he <lb/>enters in a special book at his own convenience. He enters similarly in <lb/>another book a list of owners who have been proscribed. Lastly, that no one <lb/>may be able to bring a charge of falsification against him, all these books <lb/>are enclosed in a chest with two locks, the key of one of which is kept by the <lb/>Mining Clerk, and of the other by the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>The Share Clerk enters in a book the owners of each mine whom <lb/>the first finder of the vein names to him, and from time to time replaces the <lb/>names of the sellers with those of the buyers of the shares. It sometimes <lb/>happens that twenty or more owners come into the possession of some <lb/>particular share. Unless, however, the seller is present, or has sent a letter <lb/>to the Mining Clerk with his seal, or better still with the seal of the Mayor <lb/>of the town where he dwells, his name is not replaced by that of anyone else; <lb/>for if the Share Clerk is not sufficiently cautious, the law requires him <lb/>to restore the late owner wholly to his former position. He writes out a <lb/>fresh document, and in this way gives proof of possession. Four times a <lb/>year, when the accounts of the quarterly expenditure are rendered, he <lb/>names the new proprietors to the manager of each mine, that the manager <lb/>may know from whom he should demand contributions and among whom <lb/>to distribute the profits of the mines. For this work the mine manager pays <lb/>the Clerk a fixed fee.</s>

<s>I will now speak of the duties of the mine manager. In the case of the <lb/>owners of every mine which is not yielding metal, the manager announces <lb/>to the proprietors their contributions in a document which is affixed to the <lb/>doors of the town hall, such contributions being large or small, according as <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and two Jurors determine. If anyone fails to pay these <lb/>contributions for the space of a month, the manager removes their names <lb/>from the list of owners, and makes their shares the common property of the <lb/>other proprietors. And so, whomsoever the mine manager names as not <lb/>having paid his contribution, that same man the Mining Clerk designates <lb/>in writing, and so also does the Share Clerk. Of the contribution, the <lb/>mine manager applies part to the payment of the foreman and workmen, <lb/>and lays by a part to purchase at the lowest price the necessary things for <lb/>the mine, such as iron tools, nails, firewood, planks, buckets, drawing-ropes, <lb/>or grease. But in the case of a mine which is yielding metal, the Tithe<lb/>gatherer pays the mine manager week by week as much money as suffices <lb/>to discharge the workmen's wages and to provide the necessary implements <lb/>for mining. The mine manager of each mine also, in the presence of its <lb/>foreman, on Saturday in each week renders an account of his expenses to

<pb pagenum="98"/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Jurors, he renders an account of his receipts, <lb/>whether the money has been contributed by the owners or taken from the <lb/>Tithe-gatherer; and of his quarterly expenditure in the same way <lb/>to them and to the Mining Prefect and to the Mining Clerk, four <lb/>times a year at the appointed time; for just as there are four seasons <lb/>of the year, namely, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, so there are <lb/>fourfold accounts of profits and expenses. In the beginning of the first <lb/>month of each quarter an account is rendered of the money which the <lb/>manager has spent on the mine during the previous quarter, then of the <lb/>profit which he has taken from it during the same period; for example, <lb/>the account which is rendered at the beginning of spring is an account of all <lb/>the profits and expenses of each separate week of winter, which have been <lb/>entered by the Mining Clerk in the book of accounts. If the manager <lb/>has spent the money of the proprietors advantageously in the mine and <lb/>has faithfully looked after it, everyone praises him as a diligent and honest <lb/>man; if through ignorance in these matters he has caused loss, he is generally <lb/>deprived of his office; if by his carelessness and negligence the owners have <lb/>suffered loss, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> compels him to make good the loss; and finally, <lb/>if he has been guilty of fraud or theft, he is punished with fine, prison, or <lb/>death. Further, it is the business of the manager to see that the foreman <lb/>of the mine is present at the beginning and end of the shifts, that he digs <lb/>the ore in an advantageous manner, and makes the required timbering, <lb/>machines, and drains. The manager also makes the deductions from the <lb/>pay of the workmen whom the foreman has noted as negligent. Next, <lb/>if the mine is rich in metal, the manager must see that its ore-house is closed <lb/>on those days on which no work is performed; and if it is a rich vein of gold <lb/>or silver, he sees that the miners promptly transfer the output from the shaft <lb/>or tunnel into a chest or into the strong room next to the house where the <lb/>foreman dwells, that no opportunity for theft may be given to dishonest <lb/>persons. This duty he shares in common with the foreman, but the one <lb/>which follows is peculiarly his own. When ore is smelted he is present in <lb/>person, and watches that the smelting is performed carefully and advan<lb/>tageously. If from it gold or silver is melted out, when it is melted in the <lb/>cupellation furnace he enters the weight of it in his books and carries it <lb/>to the Tithe-gatherer, who similarly writes a note of its weight in his books; <lb/>it is then conveyed to the refiner. When it has been brought back, both <lb/>the Tithe-gatherer and manager again enter its weight in their books. Why <lb/>again? Because he looks after the goods of the owners just as if they were <lb/>his own. Now the laws which relate to mining permit a manager to have <lb/>charge of more than one mine, but in the case of mines yielding gold or <lb/>silver, to have charge of only two. If, however, several mines following the <lb/>head-mine begin to produce metal, he remains in charge of these others until <lb/>he is freed from the duty of looking after them by the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/> Last of <lb/>all, the manager, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the two Jurors, in agreement <lb/>with the owners, settle the remuneration for the labourers. Enough of the <lb/>duties and occupation of the manager.</s>

<s>I will now leave the manager, and discuss him who controls the workmen <lb/>of the mine, who is therefore called the foreman, although some call him <lb/>the watchman. It is he who distributes the work among the labourers, and <lb/>sees diligently that each faithfully and usefully performs his duties. He <lb/>also discharges workmen on account of incompetence, or negligence, and <lb/>supplies others in their places if the two Jurors and manager give their <lb/>consent. He must be skilful in working wood, that he may timber shafts, <lb/>place posts, and make underground structures capable of supporting an under<lb/>mined mountain, lest the rocks from the hangingwall of the veins, not being <lb/>supported, become detached from the mass of the mountain and over<lb/>whelm the workmen with destruction. He must be able to make and lay <lb/>out the drains in the tunnels, into which the water from the veins, stringers, <lb/>and seams in the rocks may collect, that it may be properly guided and <lb/>can flow away. Further, he must be able to recognize veins and stringers, <lb/>so as to sink shafts to the best advantage, and must be able to discern one <lb/>kind of material which is mined from another, or to train his subordinates <lb/>that they may separate the materials correctly. He must also be well <lb/>acquainted with all methods of washing, so as to teach the washers how <lb/>the metalliferous earth or sand is washed. He supplies the miners with iron <lb/>tools when they are about to start to work in the mines, and apportions a <lb/>certain weight of oil for their lamps, and trains them to dig to the best <lb/>advantage, and sees that they work faithfully. When their shift is finished, <lb/>he takes back the oil which has been left. On account of his numerous and <lb/>important duties and labours, only one mine is entrusted to one foreman, <lb/>nay, rather sometimes two or three foremen are set over one mine.</s>

<s>Since I have mentioned the shifts, I will briefly explain how these are <lb/>carried on. The twenty-four hours of a day and night are divided into three <lb/>shifts, and each shift consists of seven hours. The three remaining hours are <lb/>intermediate between the shifts, and form an interval during which the <lb/>workmen enter and leave the mines. The first shift begins at the fourth hour <lb/>in the morning and lasts till the eleventh hour; the second begins at the <lb/>twelfth and is finished at the seventh; these two are day shifts in the <lb/>morning and afternoon. The third is the night shift, and commences at the <lb/>eighth hour in the evening and finishes at the third in the morning. The <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> does not allow this third shift to be imposed upon the workmen <lb/>unless necessity demands it. In that case, whether they draw water from <lb/>the shafts or mine the ore, they keep their vigil by the night lamps, and to <lb/>prevent themselves falling asleep from the late hours or from fatigue, they <lb/>lighten their long and arduous labours by singing, which is neither wholly <lb/>untrained nor unpleasing. In some places one miner is not allowed to <lb/>undertake two shifts in succession, because it often happens that he either <lb/>falls asleep in the mine, overcome by exhaustion from too much labour, or <lb/>arrives too late for his shift, or leaves sooner than he ought. Elsewhere he <lb/>is allowed to do so, because he cannot subsist on the pay of one shift, <lb/>especially if provisions grow dearer. The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> does not, however, <lb/>forbid an extraordinary shift when he concedes only one ordinary shift.

<pb pagenum="100"/>When it is time to go to work the sound of a great bell, which the foreigners <lb/>call a “campana,” gives the workmen warning, and when this is heard they <lb/>run hither and thither through the streets toward the mines. Similarly, <lb/>the same sound of the bell warns the foreman that a shift has just been <lb/>finished; therefore as soon as he hears it, he stamps on the woodwork of the <lb/>shaft and signals the workmen to come out. Thereupon, the nearest as soon <lb/>as they hear the signal, strike the rocks with their hammers, and the sound <lb/>reaches those who are furthest away. Moreover, the lamps show that the <lb/>shift has come to an end when the oil becomes almost consumed and fails <lb/>them. The labourers do not work on Saturdays, but buy those things which <lb/>are necessary to life, nor do they usually work on Sundays or annual <lb/>festivals, but on these occasions devote the shift to holy things. However, <lb/>the workmen do not rest and do nothing if necessity demands their labour; <lb/>for sometimes a rush of water compels them to work, sometimes an impending <lb/>fall, sometimes something else, and at such times it is not considered <lb/>irreligious to work on holidays. Moreover, all workmen of this class are <lb/>strong and used to toil from birth.</s>

<s>The chief kinds of workmen are miners, shovelers, windlass men, carriers, <lb/>sorters, washers, and smelters, as to whose duties I will speak in the fol<lb/>lowing books, in their proper place. At present it is enough to add this one <lb/>fact, that if the workmen have been reported by the foreman for negligence, <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> or even the foreman himself, jointly with the manager, <lb/>dismisses them from their work on Saturday, or deprives them of part of <lb/>their pay; or if for fraud, throws them into prison. However, the owners <lb/>of works in which the metals are smelted, and the master of the smelter, look <lb/>after their own men. As to the government and duties of miners, I have <lb/>now said enough; I will explain them more fully in another work entitled <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Jure et Legibus Metallícís<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s>

<pb/>

<s>In the last book I have explained the methods of <lb/>delimiting the meers along each kind of vein, and <lb/>the duties of mine officials. In this book<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> I will <lb/>in like manner explain the principles of under<lb/>ground mining and the art of surveying. First <lb/>then, I will proceed to deal with those matters <lb/>which pertain to the former heading, since both the <lb/>subject and methodical arrangement require it. <lb/>And so I will describe first of all the digging of <lb/>shafts, tunnels, and drifts on <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae;<emph.end type="italics"/> next I will discuss the good <lb/>indications shown by <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>, by the materials which are dug out, and by <lb/>the rocks; then I will speak of the tools by which veins and rocks are broken <lb/>down and excavated; the method by which fire shatters the hard veins; <lb/>and further, of the machines with which water is drawn from the shafts <lb/>and air is forced into deep shafts and long tunnels, for digging is impeded <lb/>by the inrush of the former or the failure of the latter; next I will deal <lb/>with the two kinds of shafts, and with the making of them and of tunnels; <lb/>and finally, I will describe the method of mining <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae, venae cumu<lb/>latae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and stringers.<lb/></s>

<s>Now when a miner discovers a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> he begins sinking a shaft <lb/>and above it sets up a windlass, and builds a shed over the shaft to prevent <lb/>the rain from falling in, lest the men who turn the windlass be numbed <lb/>by the cold or troubled by the rain. The windlass men also place their <lb/>barrows in it, and the miners store their iron tools and other implements therein. <lb/>Next to the shaft-house another house is built, where the mine foreman and the <lb/>other workmen dwell, and in which are stored the ore and other things which <lb/>are dug out. Although some persons build only one house, yet because <lb/>sometimes boys and other living things fall into the shafts, most miners <lb/>deliberately place one house apart from the other, or at least separate them <lb/>by a wall.</s>

<s>Now a shaft is dug, usually two fathoms long, two-thirds of a fathom <lb/>wide, and thirteen fathoms deep; but for the purpose of connecting with a <lb/>tunnel which has already been driven in a hill, a shaft may be sunk to a <lb/>depth of only eight fathoms, at other times to fourteen, more or less<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. A <lb/>shaft may be made vertical or inclined, according as the vein which the <lb/>miners follow in the course of digging is vertical or inclined. A tunnel is a <lb/>subterranean ditch driven lengthwise, and is nearly twice as high as it is <lb/>broad, and wide enough that workmen and others may be able to pass and <lb/>carry their loads. It is usually one and a quarter fathoms high, while <lb/>its width is about three and three-quarters feet. Usually two workmen are <lb/>required to drive it, one of whom digs out the upper and the other the lower <lb/>part, and the one goes forward, while the other follows closely after. Each <lb/>sits upon small boards fixed securely from the footwall to the hangingwall, <lb/>or if the vein is a soft one, sometimes on a wedge-shaped plank fixed on to the <lb/>vein itself. Miners sink more inclined shafts than vertical, and some of each <lb/>kind do not reach to tunnels, while some connect with them. But as for <lb/>some shafts, though they have already been sunk to the required depth, <lb/>the tunnel which is to pierce the mountain may not yet have been driven <lb/>far enough to connect with them.</s>

<s>It is advantageous if a shaft connects with a tunnel, for then the miners <lb/>and other workmen carry on more easily the work they have undertaken; <lb/>but if the shaft is not so deep, it is usual to drift from one or both sides of it. <lb/>From these openings the owner or foreman becomes acquainted with the <lb/>veins and stringers that unite with the principal vein, or cut across it, or

<pb pagenum="103"/>divide it obliquely; however, my discourse is now concerned mainly with <lb/><emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> but most of all with the metallic material which it contains. </s>

<s>THREE VERTICAL SHAFTS, OF WHICH THE FIRST, A, DOES NOT REACH THE TUNNEL; THE <lb/>SECOND, B, REACHES THE TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN <lb/>DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.

<pb pagenum="104"/>Excavations of this kind were called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">kruptai</foreign> for, extending <lb/>along after the manner of a tunnel, they are entirely hidden within the </s>

<s>THREE INCLINED SHAFTS, OF WHICH A DOES NOT YET REACH THE TUNNEL; B REACHES THE <lb/>TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.

<pb pagenum="105"/>ground. This kind of an opening, however, differs from a tunnel in that it <lb/>is dark throughout its length. whereas a tunnel has a mouth open to daylight.</s>

<s>A—SHAFT. B, C—DRIFT. D—ANOTHER SHAFT. E—TUNNEL. F—MOUTH OF TUNNEL.</s>

<s>I have spoken of shafts, tunnels, and drifts. I will now speak of the <lb/>indications given by the <emph type="italics"/>canales,<emph.end type="italics"/> by the materials which are dug out, and by <lb/>the rocks. These indications, as also many others which I will explain, are <lb/>to a great extent identical in <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae<emph.end type="italics"/> with <emph type="italics"/>venae <lb/>profundae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>When a stringer junctions with a main vein and causes a swelling, a <lb/>shaft should be sunk at the junction. But when we find the stringer inter<lb/>secting the main vein crosswise or obliquely, if it descends vertically down <lb/>to the depths of the earth, a second shaft should be sunk to the point where <lb/>the stringer cuts the main vein; but if the stringer cuts it obliquely the <lb/>shaft should be two or three fathoms back, in order that the junction may <lb/>be pierced lower down. At such junctions lies the best hope of finding the <lb/>ore for the sake of which we explore the ground, and if ore has already been <lb/>found, it is usually found in much greater abundance at that spot. Again, <lb/>if several stringers descend into the earth, the miner, in order to pierce <lb/>through the point of contact, should sink the shaft in the midst of these <lb/>stringers, or else calculate on the most prominent one.</s>

<s>Since an inclined vein often lies near a vertical vein, it is advisable <lb/>to sink a shaft at the spot where a stringer or cross-vein cuts them both; <lb/>or where a <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> or a stringer <emph type="italics"/>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> passes through, for minerals <lb/>are usually found there. In the same way we have a good prospect of finding <lb/>metal at the point where an inclined vein joins a vertical one; this is why <lb/>miners cross-cut the hangingwall or footwall of a main vein, and in these <lb/>openings seek for a vein which may junction with the principal vein a few <lb/>fathoms below. Nay, further, these same miners, if no stringer or cross<lb/>vein intersects the main vein so that they can follow it in their workings, <lb/>even cross-cut through the solid rock of the hangingwall or footwall. These <lb/>cross-cuts are likewise called “<foreign lang="greek">kruptai/,</foreign>” whether the beginning of the <lb/>opening which has to be undertaken is made from a tunnel or from a drift. <lb/>Miners have some hope when only a cross vein cuts a main vein. Further, <lb/>if a vein which cuts the main vein obliquely does not appear anywhere <lb/>beyond it, it is advisable to dig into that side of the main vein toward which <lb/>the oblique vein inclines, whether the right or left side, that we may ascer<lb/>tain if the main vein has absorbed it; if after cross-cutting six fathoms it <lb/>is not found, it is advisable to dig on the other side of the main vein, that <lb/>we may know for certain whether it has carried it forward. The owners <lb/>of a main vein can often dig no less profitably on that side where the vein <lb/>which cuts the main vein again appears, than where it first cuts it; the <lb/>owners of the intersecting vein, when that is found again, recover their title, <lb/>which had in a measure been lost.</s>

<s>The common miners look favourably upon the stringers which come <lb/>from the north and join the main vein; on the other hand, they look <lb/>unfavourably upon those which come from the south, and say that these do <lb/>much harm to the main vein, while the former improve it. But I think <lb/>that miners should not neglect either of them: as I showed in Book III, <lb/>experience does not confirm those who hold this opinion about veins, so now

<pb pagenum="107"/>again I could furnish examples of each kind of stringers rejected by the <lb/>common miners which have proved good, but I know this could be of little <lb/>or no benefit to posterity.</s>

<s>If the miners find no stringers or veins in the hangingwall or footwall of <lb/>the main vein, and if they do not find much ore, it is not worth while to <lb/>undertake the labour of sinking another shaft. Nor ought a shaft to be sunk <lb/>where a vein is divided into two or three parts, unless the indications are <lb/>satisfactory that those parts may be united and joined together a little later. <lb/>Further, it is a bad indication for a vein rich in mineral to bend and turn <lb/>hither and thither, for unless it goes down again into the ground vertically or <lb/>inclined, as it first began, it produces no more metal; and even though it <lb/>does go down again, it often continues barren. Stringers which in their <lb/>outcrops bear metals, often disappoint miners, no metal being found in depth. <lb/>Further, inverted seams in the rocks are counted among the bad indications.</s>

<s>The miners hew out the whole of solid veins when they show clear evidence <lb/>of being of good quality; similarly they hew out the drusy<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> veins, <lb/>especially if the cavities are plainly seen to have formerly borne metal, or <lb/>if the cavities are few and small. They do not dig barren veins through <lb/>which water flows, if there are no metallic particles showing; occasionally, <lb/>however, they dig even barren veins which are free from water, because <lb/>of the pyrites which is devoid of all metal, or because of a fine black soft <lb/>substance which is like wool. They dig stringers which are rich in metal, <lb/>or sometimes, for the purpose of searching for the vein, those that are devoid <lb/>of ore which lie near the hangingwall or footwall of the main vein. This <lb/>then, generally speaking, is the mode of dealing with stringers and veins.</s>

<s>Let us now consider the metallic material which is found in the <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae, venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> being in all these <lb/>either cohesive and continuous, or scattered and dispersed among them, <lb/>or swelling out in bellying shapes, or found in veins or stringers which <lb/>originate from the main vein and ramify like branches; but these latter veins <lb/>and stringers are very short, for after a little space they do not appear again. <lb/>If we come across a small quantity of metallic material it is an indication; <lb/>but if a large quantity, it is not an “indication,” but the very thing for <lb/>which we explore the earth. As soon as a miner who searches for veins <lb/>discovers pure metal or minerals, or rich metallic material, or a great <lb/>abundance of material which is poor in metal, let him sink a shaft on the <lb/>spot without any delay. If the material appears more abundant or of better <lb/>quality on the one side, he will incline his digging in that direction.</s>

<s>Gold, silver, copper, and quicksilver are often found native<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>; less <lb/>often iron and bismuth; almost never tin and lead. Nevertheless tin-stone <lb/>is not far removed from the pure white tin which is melted out of them, and <lb/>galena, from which lead is obtained, differs little from that metal itself.</s>

<s>Now we may classify gold ores. Next after native gold, we come to the <lb/>

<pb pagenum="108"/><emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>, of yellowish green, yellow, purple, black, or outside red and inside <lb/>gold colour. These must be reckoned as the richest ores, because the gold <lb/>exceeds the stone or earth in weight. Next come all gold ores of which each. <lb/>one hundred <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> contains more than three <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>; for although but <lb/>a small proportion of gold is found in the earth or stone, yet it equals in value <lb/>other metals of greater weight.<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> All other gold ores are considered poor, because <lb/><lb/>

<pb pagenum="109"/>the earth or stone too far outweighs the gold. A vein which contains a <lb/>larger proportion of silver than of gold is rarely found to be a rich one. <lb/>Earth, whether it be dry or wet, rarely abounds in gold; but in dry earth <lb/>there is more often found a greater quantity of gold, especially if it has the

<pb pagenum="110"/>appearance of having been melted in a furnace, and if it is not lacking in <lb/>scales resembling mica. The solidified juices, azure, chrysocolla, orpiment, <lb/>and realgar, also frequently contain gold. Likewise native or <emph type="italics"/>rudís<emph.end type="italics"/> gold is <lb/>found sometimes in large, and sometimes in small quantities in quartz,

<pb pagenum="111"/>schist, marble, and also in stone which easily melts in fire of the second <lb/>degree, and which is sometimes so porous that it seems completely decom<lb/>posed. Lastly, gold is found in pyrites, though rarely in large quantities.</s>

<s>When considering silver ores other than native silver, those ores are

<pb pagenum="112"/>classified as rich, of which each one hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> contains more than three <lb/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. This quality comprises <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> silver, whether silver glance or <lb/>ruby silver, or whether white, or black, or grey, or purple, or yellow, or liver-

<pb pagenum="113"/>coloured, or any other. Sometimes quartz, schist, or marble is of this quality <lb/>also, if much native or <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> silver adheres to it. But that ore is considered <lb/>of poor quality if three <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver at the utmost are found in each <lb/>one hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of it.<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> Silver ore usually contains a greater quantity

<pb pagenum="114"/>than this, because Nature bestows quantity in place of quality; such ore <lb/>is mixed with all kinds of earth and stone compounds, except the various <lb/>kinds of <emph type="italics"/>rudís<emph.end type="italics"/> silver; especially with pyrites, <emph type="italics"/>cadmia metallíca fossílís,<emph.end type="italics"/> galena, <lb/><emph type="italics"/>stibíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> and others.</s>

<s>As regards other kinds of metal, although some rich ores are found, <lb/>still, unless the veins contain a large quantity of ore, it is very rarely worth <lb/>while to dig them. The Indians and some other races do search for gems in <lb/>veins hidden deep in the earth, but more often they are noticed from their <lb/>clearness, or rather their brilliancy, when metals are mined. When they <lb/>outcrop, we follow veins of marble by mining in the same way as is <lb/>done with rock or building-stones when we come upon them. But <lb/>gems, properly so called, though they sometimes have veins of their own, <lb/>are still for the most part found in mines and rock quarries, as the <lb/>lodestone in iron mines, the emery in silver mines, the <emph type="italics"/>lapís judaícus, <lb/>trochítes,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the like in stone quarries where the diggers, at the bidding <lb/>of the owners, usually collect them from the seams in the rocks.<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> Nor does the <lb/>miner neglect the digging of “extraordinary earths,”<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> whether they are found <lb/>

<pb pagenum="116"/>in gold mines, silver mines, or other mines; nor do other miners neglect them <lb/>if they are found in stone quarries, or in their own veins; their value is usually <lb/>indicated by their taste. Nor, lastly, does the miner fail to give attention to <lb/>the solidified juices which are found in metallic veins, as well as in their own <lb/>veins, from which he collects and gathers them. But I will say no more <lb/>on these matters, because I have explained more fully all the metals and <lb/>mineral substances in the books “<emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s>

<s>But I will return to the indications. If we come upon earth which is <lb/>like lute, in which there are particles of any sort of metal, native or <emph type="italics"/>rudis,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>the best possible indication of a vein is given to miners, for the metallic <lb/>material from which the particles have become detached is necessarily close <lb/>by. But if this kind of earth is found absolutely devoid of all metallic <lb/>material, but fatty, and of white, green, blue, and similar colours, they must <lb/>not abandon the work that has been started. Miners have other indications in <lb/>the veins and stringers, which I have described already, and in the rocks, about <lb/>which I will speak a little later. If the miner comes across other dry earths <lb/>which contain native or <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> metal, that is a good indication; if he comes <lb/>across yellow, red, black, or some other “extraordinary” earth, though it is <lb/>devoid of mineral, it is not a bad indication. Chrysocolla, or azure, or verdigris, <lb/>or orpiment, or realgar, when they are found, are counted among the good <lb/>indications. Further, where underground springs throw up metal we ought <lb/>to continue the digging we have begun, for this points to the particles having <lb/>been detached from the main mass like a fragment from a body. In the <lb/>same way the thin scales of any metal adhering to stone or rock are counted <lb/>among the good indications. Next, if the veins which are composed partly <lb/>of quartz, partly of clayey or dry earth, descend one and all into the depths <lb/>of the earth together, with their stringers, there is good hope of metal being <lb/>found; but if the stringers afterward do not appear, or little metallic <lb/>material is met with, the digging should not be given up until there is nothing <lb/>remaining. Dark or black or horn or liver-coloured quartz is usually a good <lb/>sign; white is sometimes good, sometimes no sign at all. But calc-spar, <lb/>showing itself in a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> if it disappears a little lower down is not a <lb/>good indication; for it did not belong to the vein proper, but to some stringer. <lb/>Those kinds of stone which easily melt in fire, especially if they are translucent <lb/>(fluorspar?), must be counted among the medium indications, for if other <lb/>good indications are present they are good, but if no good indications are <lb/>present, they give no useful significance. In the same way we ought to form <lb/>our judgment with regard to gems. Veins which at the hangingwall and <lb/>footwall have horn-coloured quartz or marble, but in the middle clayey <lb/>earth, give some hope; likewise those give hope in which the hangingwall <lb/>or footwall shows iron-rust coloured earth, and in the middle greasy and <lb/>sticky earth; also there is hope for those which have at the hanging or footwall <lb/>that kind of earth which we call “soldiers' earth,” and in the middle black <lb/>earth or earth which looks as if burnt. The special indication of gold is <lb/>orpiment; of silver is bismuth and <emph type="italics"/>stibium;<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper is verdigris, <emph type="italics"/>melantería, <lb/>sory, chalcitis, misy,<emph.end type="italics"/> and vitriol; of tin is the large pure black stones of

<pb pagenum="117"/>which the tin itself is made, and a material they dig up resembling litharge; <lb/>of iron, iron rust. Gold and copper are equally indicated by chrysocolla and <lb/>azure; silver and lead, by the lead. But, though miners rightly <lb/>call bismuth “the roof of silver,” and though copper pyrites is the common <lb/>parent of vitriol and <emph type="italics"/>melantería,<emph.end type="italics"/> still these sometimes have their own <lb/>peculiar minerals, just as have orpiment and <emph type="italics"/>stibium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s>

<s>Now, just as certain vein materials give miners a favourable indication, <lb/>so also do the rocks through which the <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/> of the veins wind their <lb/>way, for sand discovered in a mine is reckoned among the good indications, <lb/>especially if it is very fine. In the same way schist, when it is of a <lb/>bluish or blackish colour, and also limestone, of whatever colour it may be, is <lb/>a good sign for a silver vein. There is a rock of another kind that is a good sign; <lb/>in it are scattered tiny black stones from which tin is smelted; especially when <lb/>the whole space between the veins is composed of this kind of rock. <lb/>Very often indeed, this good kind of rock in conjunction with valuable <lb/>stringers contains within its folds the <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/> of mineral bearing veins: if <lb/>it descends vertically into the earth, the benefit belongs to that mine in <lb/>which it is seen first of all; if inclined, it benefits the other neighbouring <lb/>mines<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>. As a result the miner who is not ignorant of geometry can calculate <lb/>from the other mines the depth at which the <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/> of a vein bearing rich <lb/>metal will wind its way through the rock into his mine. So much for these <lb/>matters.</s>

<s>I now come to the mode of working, which is varied and complex, for in <lb/>some places they dig crumbling ore, in others hard ore, in others a harder <lb/>ore, and in others the hardest kind of ore. In the same way, in some places <lb/>the hangingwall rock is soft and fragile, in others hard, in others harder, and <lb/>in still others of the hardest sort. I call that ore “crumbling” which is com<lb/>posed of earth, and of soft solidified juices; that ore “hard” which is composed <lb/>of metallic minerals and moderately hard stones, such as for the most part <lb/>are those which easily melt in a fire of the first and second orders, like lead <lb/>and similar materials. I call that ore “harder” when with those I have already <lb/>mentioned are combined various sorts of quartz, or stones which easily melt <lb/>in fire of the third degree, or pyrites, or <emph type="italics"/>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"/> or very hard marble. I call <lb/>that ore hardest, which is composed throughout the whole vein of these hard <lb/>stones and compounds. The hanging or footwalls of a vein are hard, when <lb/>composed of rock in which there are few stringers or seams; harder, in <lb/>which they are fewer; hardest, in which they are fewest or none at all. <lb/>When these are absent, the rock is quite devoid of water which softens <lb/>it. But the hardest rock of the hanging or footwall, however, is seldom as <lb/>hard as the harder class of ore.</s>

<s>Miners dig out crumbling ore with the pick alone. When the metal <lb/>has not yet shown itself, they do not discriminate between the hangingwall <lb/>and the veins; when it has once been found, they work with the utmost care. <lb/>For first of all they tear away the hangingwall rock separately from the vein, <lb/>afterward with a pick they dislodge the crumbling vein from the footwall

<pb pagenum="118"/>into a dish placed underneath to prevent any of the metal from falling to <lb/>the ground. They break a hard vein loose from the footwall by blows with <lb/>a hammer upon the first kind of iron tool<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>, all of which are designated by <lb/>appropriate names, and with the same tools they hew away the hard hanging<lb/>wall rock. They hew out the hangingwall rock in advance more frequently, the <lb/>rock of the footwall more rarely; and indeed, when the rock of the footwall <lb/>resists iron tools, the rock of the hangingwall certainly cannot be broken unless <lb/>it is allowable to shatter it by fire. With regard to the harder veins which are <lb/>tractable to iron tools, and likewise with regard to the harder and hardest <lb/>kind of hangingwall rock, they generally attack them with more powerful <lb/>iron tools, in fact, with the fourth kind of iron tool, which are called by their <lb/>appropriate names; but if these are not ready to hand, they use two or <lb/>three iron tools of the first kind together. As for the hardest kind of metal<lb/>bearing vein, which in a measure resists iron tools, if the owners of the <lb/>neighbouring mines give them permission, they break it with fires. But if <lb/>these owners refuse them permission, then first of all they hew out the rock of <lb/>the hangingwall, or of the footwall if it be less hard; then they place timbers <lb/>set in hitches in the hanging or footwall, a little above the vein, and from <lb/>the front and upper part, where the vein is seen to be seamed with small <lb/>cracks, they drive into one of the little cracks one of the iron tools which <lb/>I have mentioned; then in each fracture they place four thin iron <lb/>blocks, and in order to hold them more firmly, if necessary, they place <lb/>as many thin iron plates back to back; next they place thinner iron <lb/>plates between each two iron blocks, and strike and drive them by <lb/>turns with hammers, whereby the vein rings with a shrill sound; and the <lb/>moment when it begins to be detached from the hangingwall or footwall <lb/>rock, a tearing sound is heard. As soon as this grows distinct the miners <lb/>hastily flee away; then a great crash is heard as the vein is broken and torn, <lb/>and falls down. By this method they throw down a portion of a vein weigh<lb/>ing a hundred pounds more or less. But if the miners by any other method <lb/>hew the hardest kind of vein which is rich in metal, there remain certain <lb/>cone-shaped portions which can be cut out afterward only with difficulty. As <lb/>for this knob of hard ore, if it is devoid of metal, or if they are not allowed to <lb/>apply fire to it, they proceed round it by digging to the right or left, because <lb/>it cannot be broken into by iron wedges without great expense. Meantime, <lb/>while the workmen are carrying out the task they have undertaken, the <lb/>depths of the earth often resound with sweet singing, whereby they lighten a <lb/>toil which is of the severest kind and full of the greatest dangers.</s>

<s>As I have just said, fire shatters the hardest rocks, but the method of its <lb/>application is not simple<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/>. For if a vein held in the rocks cannot be hewn <lb/>

<pb pagenum="119"/>out because of the hardness or other difficulty, and the drift or tunnel is <lb/>low, a heap of dried logs is placed against the rock and fired; if the drift or <lb/>tunnel is high, two heaps are necessary, of which one is placed above the <lb/>other, and both burn until the fire has consumed them. This force does not <lb/>generally soften a large portion of the vein, but only some of the surface. <lb/>When the rock in the hanging or footwall can be worked by the iron tools <lb/>and the vein is so hard that it is not tractable to the same tools, then the <lb/>walls are hollowed out; if this be in the end of the drift or tunnel or above <lb/>or below, the vein is then broken by fire, but not by the same method; for <lb/>if the hollow is wide, as many logs are piled into it as possible, but if narrow, <lb/>only a few. By the one method the greater fire separates the vein more <lb/>completely from the footwall or sometimes from the hangingwall, and by the <lb/>other, the smaller fire breaks away less of the vein from the rock, because in <lb/>that case the fire is confined and kept in check by portions of the rock which <lb/>surround the wood held in such a narrow excavation. Further, if the <lb/>excavation is low, only one pile of logs is placed in it, if high, there are <lb/>two, one placed above the other, by which plan the lower bundle being <lb/>kindled sets alight the upper one; and the fire being driven by the draught <lb/>into the vein, separates it from the rock which, however hard it may be, often <lb/>becomes so softened as to be the most easily breakable of all. Applying this <lb/>principle, Hannibal, the Carthaginian General, imitating the Spanish miners,

<pb pagenum="120"/>overcame the hardness of the Alps by the use of vinegar and fire. Even <lb/>if a vein is a very wide one, as tin veins usually are, miners excavate into the <lb/>small streaks, and into those hollows they put dry wood and place amongst <lb/>them at frequent intervals sticks, all sides of which are shaved down fan<lb/>shaped, which easily take light, and when once they have taken fire com<lb/>municate it to the other bundles of wood, which easily ignite.</s>

<s>A—KINDLED LOGS. B—STICKS SHAVED DOWN FAN-SHAPED. C—TUNNEL.</s>

<s>While the heated veins and rock are giving forth a foetid vapour and the <lb/>shafts or tunnels are emitting fumes, the miners and other workmen do not <lb/>go down in the mines lest the stench affect their health or actually kill them, <lb/>as I will explain in greater detail when I come to speak of the evils which <lb/>affect miners. The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> in order to prevent workmen from being <lb/>suffocated, gives no one permission to break veins or rock by fire in shafts or <lb/>tunnels where it is possible for the poisonous vapour and smoke to permeate <lb/>the veins or stringers and pass through into the neighbouring mines, which <lb/>have no hard veins or rock. As for that part of a vein or the surface of the <lb/>rock which the fire has separated from the remaining mass, if it is overhead, <lb/>the miners dislodge it with a crowbar, or if it still has some degree of hardness, <lb/>they thrust a smaller crowbar into the cracks and so break it down, but if

<pb pagenum="121"/>it is on the sides they break it with hammers. Thus broken off, the rock <lb/>tumbles down; or if it still remains, they break it off with picks. Rock <lb/>and earth on the one hand, and metal and ore on the other, are filled into <lb/>buckets separately and drawn up to the open air or to the nearest tunnel. <lb/>If the shaft is not deep, the buckets are drawn up by a machine turned by <lb/>men; if it is deep, they are drawn by machines turned by horses.</s>

<s>It often happens that a rush of water or sometimes stagnant air hinders <lb/>the mining; for this reason miners pay the greatest attention to these <lb/>matters, just as much as to digging, or they should do so. The water of the <lb/>veins and stringers and especially of vacant workings, must be drained out <lb/>through the shafts and tunnels. Air, indeed, becomes stagnant both in <lb/>tunnels and in shafts; in a deep shaft, if it be by itself, this occurs if it is <lb/>neither reached by a tunnel nor connected by a drift with another shaft; <lb/>this occurs in a tunnel if it has been driven too far into a mountain and no <lb/>shaft has yet been sunk deep enough to meet it; in neither case can the <lb/>air move or circulate. For this reason the vapours become heavy and <lb/>resemble mist, and they smell of mouldiness, like a vault or some under<lb/>ground chamber which has been completely closed for many years. This <lb/>suffices to prevent miners from continuing their work for long in these places, <lb/>even if the mine is full of silver or gold, or if they do continue, they cannot <lb/>breathe freely and they have headaches; this more often happens if they <lb/>work in these places in great numbers, and bring many lamps, which then <lb/>supply them with a feeble light, because the foul air from both lamps and <lb/>men make the vapours still more heavy.</s>

<s>A small quantity of water is drawn from the shafts by machines of <lb/>different kinds which men turn or work. If so great a quantity has flowed <lb/>into one shaft as greatly to impede mining, another shaft is sunk some <lb/>fathoms distant from the first, and thus in one of them work and labour are <lb/>carried on without hindrance, and the water is drained into the other, which <lb/>is sunk lower than the level of the water in the first one; then by these <lb/>machines or by those worked by horses, the water is drawn up into the drain <lb/>and flows out of the shaft-house or the mouth of the nearest tunnel. But <lb/>when into the shaft of one mine, which is sunk more deeply, there flows all <lb/>the water of all the neighbouring mines, not only from that vein in which <lb/>the shaft is sunk, but also from other veins, then it becomes necessary for a <lb/>large sump to be made to collect the water; from this sump the water is <lb/>drained by machines which draw it through pipes, or by ox-hides, about <lb/>which I will say more in the next book. The water which pours into the <lb/>tunnels from the veins and stringers and seams in the rocks is carried <lb/>away in the drains.</s>

<s>Air is driven into the extremities of deep shafts and long tunnels by <lb/>powerful blowing machines, as I will explain in the following book, which <lb/>will deal with these machines also. The outer air flows spontaneously into <lb/>the caverns of the earth, and when it can pass through them comes out again. <lb/>This, however, comes about in different ways, for in spring and summer it <lb/>flows into the deeper shafts, traverses the tunnels or drifts, and finds its way

<pb pagenum="122"/>out of the shallower shafts; similarly at the same season it pours into the <lb/>lowest tunnel and, meeting a shaft in its course, turns aside to a higher tunnel <lb/>and passes out therefrom; but in autumn and winter, on the other hand, it <lb/>enters the upper tunnel or shaft and comes out at the deeper ones. This <lb/>change in the flow of air currents occurs in temperate regions at the beginning <lb/>of spring and the end of autumn, but in cold regions at the end of spring <lb/>and the beginning of autumn. But at each period, before the air regularly <lb/>assumes its own accustomed course, generally for a space of fourteen days <lb/>it undergoes frequent variations, now blowing into an upper shaft or <lb/>tunnel, now into a lower one. But enough of this, let us now proceed to <lb/>what remains.</s>

<s>There are two kinds of shafts, one of the depth already described, of <lb/>which kind there are usually several in one mine; especially if the mine is <lb/>entered by a tunnel and is metal-bearing. For when the first tunnel is <lb/>connected with the first shaft, two new shafts are sunk; or if the inrush of <lb/>water hinders sinking, sometimes three are sunk; so that one may take <lb/>the place of a sump and the work of sinking which has been begun may be <lb/>continued by means of the remaining two shafts; the same is done in the <lb/>case of the second tunnel and the third, or even the fourth, if so many are <lb/>driven into a mountain. The second kind of shaft is very deep, sometimes <lb/>as much as sixty, eighty, or one hundred fathoms. These shafts continue <lb/>vertically toward the depths of the earth, and by means of a hauling-rope <lb/>the broken rock and metalliferous ores are drawn out of the mine; for which <lb/>reason miners call them vertical shafts. Over these shafts are erected <lb/>machines by which water is extracted; when they are above ground the <lb/>machines are usually worked by horses, but when they are in tunnels, other <lb/>kinds are used which are turned by water-power. Such are the shafts which <lb/>are sunk when a vein is rich in metal.</s>

<s>Now shafts, of whatever kind they may be, are supported in various <lb/>ways. If the vein is hard, and also the hanging and footwall rock, the shaft <lb/>does not require much timbering, but timbers are placed at intervals, one end <lb/>of each of which is fixed in a hitch cut into the rock of the hangingwall and <lb/>the other fixed into a hitch cut in the footwall. To these timbers are fixed <lb/>small timbers along the footwall, to which are fastened the lagging and <lb/>ladders. The lagging is also fixed to the timbers, both to those which screen <lb/>off the shaft on the ends from the vein, and to those which screen off the <lb/>rest of the shaft from that part in which the ladders are placed. The lagging <lb/>on the sides of the shaft confine the vein, so as to prevent fragments of it <lb/>which have become loosened by water from dropping into the shaft and <lb/>terrifying, or injuring, or knocking off the miners and other workmen who <lb/>are going up or down the ladders from one part of the mine to another. For <lb/>the same reason, the lagging between the ladders and the haulage-way on <lb/>the other hand, confine and shut off from the ladders the fragments of rock <lb/>which fall from the buckets or baskets while they are being drawn up; <lb/>moreover, they make the arduous and difficult descent and ascent to appear <lb/>less terrible, and in fact to be less dangerous.</s>

<s>If a vein is soft and the rock of the hanging and footwalls is weak, <lb/>a closer structure is necessary; for this purpose timbers are joined together <lb/>in rectangular shapes and placed one after the other without a break. These </s>

<s>A—WALL PLATES. B—DIVIDERS. C—LONG END POSTS. D—END PLATES.

<pb pagenum="124"/>are arranged on two different systems; for either the square ends of the <lb/>timbers, which reach from the hangingwall to the footwall, are fixed into corres<lb/>ponding square holes in the timbers which lie along the hanging or footwall, <lb/>or the upper part of the end of one and the lower part of the end of the other <lb/>are cut out and one laid on the other. The great weight of these joined <lb/>timbers is sustained by stout beams placed at intervals, which are deeply set <lb/>into hitches in the footwall and hangingwall, but are inclined. In order that <lb/>these joined timbers may remain stationary, wooden wedges or poles cut <lb/>from trees are driven in between the timbers and the vein and the hanging <lb/>wall and the footwall; and the space which remains empty is filled with loose <lb/>dirt. If the hanging and footwall rock is sometimes hard and sometimes soft, <lb/>and the vein likewise, solid joined timbers are not used, but timbers are <lb/>placed at intervals; and where the rock is soft and the vein crumbling, <lb/>carpenters put in lagging between them and the wall rocks, and behind these <lb/>they fill with loose dirt; by this means they fill up the void.</s>

<s>When a very deep shaft, whether vertical or inclined, is supported by <lb/>joined timbers, then, since they are sometimes of bad material and a fall is <lb/>threatened, for the sake of greater firmness three or four pairs of strong end <lb/>posts are placed between these, one pair on the hangingwall side, the other <lb/>on the footwall side. To prevent them from falling out of position and to <lb/>make them firm and substantial, they are supported by frequent end plates, <lb/>and in order that these may be more securely fixed they are mortised into <lb/>the posts. Further, in whatever way the shaft may be timbered, dividers <lb/>are placed upon the wall plates, and to these is fixed lagging, and this <lb/>marks off and separates the ladder-way from the remaining part of the shaft. <lb/>If a vertical shaft is a very deep one, planks are laid upon the timbers by the <lb/>side of the ladders and fixed on to the timbers, in order that the men who are <lb/>going up or down may sit or stand upon them and rest when they are tired. <lb/>To prevent danger to the shovellers from rocks which, after being drawn up <lb/>from so deep a shaft fall down again, a little above the bottom of the shaft <lb/>small rough sticks are placed close together on the timbers, in such a way as <lb/>to cover the whole space of the shaft except the ladder-way. A hole, <lb/>however, is left in this structure near the footwall, which is kept open so that <lb/>there may be one opening to the shaft from the bottom, that the buckets <lb/>full of the materials which have been dug out may be drawn from the <lb/>shaft through it by machines, and may be returned to the same place again <lb/>empty; and so the shovellers and other workmen, as it were hiding beneath <lb/>this structure, remain perfectly safe in the shaft.</s>

<s>In mines on one vein there are driven one, two, or sometimes three <lb/>or more tunnels, always one above the other. If the vein is solid and <lb/>hard, and likewise the hanging and footwall rock, no part of the tunnel <lb/>needs support, beyond that which is required at the mouth, because at that <lb/>spot there is not yet solid rock; if the vein is soft, and the hanging and <lb/>footwall rock are likewise soft, the tunnel requires frequent strong timbering, <lb/>which is provided in the following way. First, two dressed posts are erected <lb/>and set into the tunnel floor, which is dug out a little; these are of medium

<pb pagenum="125"/>thickness, and high enough that their ends, which are cut square, almost <lb/>touch the top of the tunnel; then upon them is placed a smaller dressed cap, <lb/>which is mortised into the heads of the posts: at the bottom, other small <lb/>timbers, whose ends are similarly squared, are mortised into the posts. At <lb/>each interval of one and a half fathoms, one of these sets is erected; each one <lb/>of these the miners call a “little doorway,” because it opens a certain amount <lb/>of passage way; and indeed, when necessity requires it, doors are fixed to the <lb/>timbers of each little doorway so that it can be closed. Then lagging of <lb/>planks or of poles is placed upon the caps lengthwise, so as to reach from one <lb/>set of timbers to another, and is laid along the sides, in case some portion of <lb/>the body of the mountain may fall, and by its bulk impede passage or crush <lb/>persons coming in or out. Moreover, to make the timbers remain stationary, <lb/>wooden pegs are driven between them and the sides of the tunnel. Lastly, <lb/>if rock or earth are carried out in wheelbarrows, planks joined together are <lb/>laid upon the sills; if the rock is hauled out in trucks, then two timbers <lb/>three-quarters of a foot thick and wide are laid on the sills, and, where they <lb/>join, these are usually hollowed out so that in the hollow, as in a road, the iron <lb/>pin of the truck may be pushed along; indeed, because of this pin in the <lb/>groove, the truck does not leave the worn track to the left or right. Beneath <lb/>the sills are the drains through which the water flows away.</s>

<s>A—POSTS. B—CAPS. C—SILLS. D—DOORS. E—LAGGING. F—DRAINS.</s>

<s>Miners timber drifts in the same way as tunnels. These do not, however, <lb/>require sill-pieces, or drains; for the broken rock is not hauled very far, nor does <lb/>the water have far to flow. If the vein above is metal-bearing, as it sometimes is

<pb pagenum="126"/>for a distance of several fathoms, then from the upper part of tunnels or even <lb/>drifts that have already been driven, other drifts are driven again <lb/>and again until that part of the vein is reached which does not yield metal. <lb/>The timbering of these openings is done as follows: stulls are set at <lb/>intervals into hitches in the hanging and footwall, and upon them <lb/>smooth poles are laid continuously; and that they may be able to <lb/>bear the weight, the stulls are generally a foot and a half thick. After the <lb/>ore has been taken out and the mining of the vein is being done elsewhere, <lb/>the rock then broken, especially if it cannot be taken away without great <lb/>difficulty, is thrown into these openings among the timber, and the carriers <lb/>of the ore are saved toil, and the owners save half the expense. This then, <lb/>generally speaking, is the method by which everything relating to the <lb/>timbering of shafts, tunnels, and drifts is carried out.</s>

<s>All that I have hitherto written is in part peculiar to <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and in part common to all kinds of veins; of what follows, part is specially <lb/>applicable to <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> part to <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae.<emph.end type="italics"/> But first I will <lb/>describe how <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> should be mined. Where torrents, rivers, or <lb/>streams have by inundations washed away part of the slope of a mountain or <lb/>a hill, and have disclosed a <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> a tunnel should be driven first straight <lb/>and narrow, and then wider, for nearly all the vein should be hewn away; and <lb/>when this tunnel has been driven further, a shaft which supplies air should be <lb/>sunk in the mountain or hill, and through it from time to time the ore, earth, <lb/>and rock can be drawn up at less expense than if they be drawn out through the <lb/>very great length of the tunnel; and even in those places to which the tunnel <lb/>does not yet reach, miners dig shafts in order to open a <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> which <lb/>they conjecture must lie beneath the soil. In this way, when the upper <lb/>layers are removed, they dig through rock sometimes of one kind and colour, <lb/>sometimes of one kind but different colours, sometimes of different kinds but <lb/>of one colour, and, lastly, of different kinds and different colours. The thickness <lb/>of rock, both of each single stratum and of all combined, is uncertain, for <lb/>the whole of the strata are in some places twenty fathoms deep, in others <lb/>more than fifty; individual strata are in some places half a foot thick; in others, <lb/>one, two, or more feet; in others, one, two, three, or more fathoms. For <lb/>example, in those districts which lie at the foot of the Harz mountains, <lb/>there are many different coloured strata, covering a copper <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>When the soil has been stripped, first of all is disclosed a stratum which <lb/>is red, but of a dull shade and of a thickness of twenty, thirty, or five and <lb/>thirty fathoms. Then there is another stratum, also red, but of a light <lb/>shade, which has usually a thickness of about two fathoms. Beneath this is a <lb/>stratum of ash-coloured clay nearly a fathom thick, which, although it is <lb/>not metalliferous, is reckoned a vein. Then follows a third stratum, <lb/>which is ashy, and about three fathoms thick. Beneath this lies a vein <lb/>of ashes to the thickness of five fathoms, and these ashes are mixed with <lb/>rock of the same colour. Joined to the last, and underneath, comes a <lb/>stratum, the fourth in number, dark in colour and a foot thick. Under this <lb/>comes the fifth stratum, of a pale or yellowish colour, two feet thick; under-

<pb pagenum="127"/>neath which is the sixth stratum, likewise dark, but rough and three feet <lb/>thick. Afterward occurs the seventh stratum, likewise of dark colour, but <lb/>still darker than the last, and two feet thick. This is followed by an eighth <lb/>stratum, ashy, rough, and a foot thick. This kind, as also the others, <lb/>is sometimes distinguished by stringers of the stone which easily melts in <lb/>fire of the second order. Beneath this is another ashy rock, light in <lb/>weight, and five feet thick. Next to this comes a lighter ash-coloured <lb/>one, a foot thick; beneath this lies the eleventh stratum, which is dark and <lb/>very much like the seventh, and two feet thick. Below the last is <lb/>a twelfth stratum of a whitish colour and soft, also two feet thick; the <lb/>weight of this rests on a thirteenth stratum, ashy and one foot thick, whose <lb/>weight is in turn supported by a fourteenth stratum, which is blackish and <lb/>half a foot thick. There follows this, another stratum of black colour, <lb/>likewise half a foot thick, which is again followed by a sixteenth stratum <lb/>still blacker in colour, whose thickness is also the same. Beneath this, and <lb/>last of all, lies the cupriferous stratum, black coloured and schistose, in which <lb/>there sometimes glitter scales of gold-coloured pyrites in the very thin sheets, <lb/>which, as I said elsewhere, often take the forms of various living things.<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>The miners mine out a <emph type="italics"/>vena dílatata<emph.end type="italics"/> laterally and longitudinally by <lb/>driving a low tunnel in it, and if the nature of the work and place permit, they <lb/>sink also a shaft in order to discover whether there is a second vein beneath <lb/>the first one; for sometimes beneath it there are two, three, or more similar <lb/>metal-bearing veins, and these are excavated in the same way laterally and <lb/>longitudinally. They generally mine <emph type="italics"/>venæ dilatatæ<emph.end type="italics"/> lying down; and to

<pb pagenum="128"/>avoid wearing away their clothes and injuring their left shoulders they <lb/>usually bind on themselves small wooden cradles. For this reason, this <lb/>particular class of miners, in order to use their iron tools, are obliged to bend <lb/>their necks to the left, not infrequently having them twisted. Now these <lb/>veins also sometimes divide, and where these parts re-unite, ore of a richer and <lb/>a better quality is generally found; the same thing occurs where the stringers, <lb/>of which they are not altogether devoid, join with them, or cut them crosswise, <lb/>or divide them obliquely. To prevent a mountain or hill, which has in <lb/>this way been undermined, from subsiding by its weight, either some natural <lb/>pillars and arches are left, on which the pressure rests as on a foundation, or <lb/>timbering is done for support. Moreover, the materials which are dug out <lb/>and which are devoid of metal are removed in bowls, and are thrown back, <lb/>thus once more filling the caverns.</s>

<s>Next, as to <emph type="italics"/>venæ cumulatæ.<emph.end type="italics"/> These are dug by a somewhat different <lb/>method, for when one of these shows some metal at the top of the ground, <lb/>first of all one shaft is sunk; then, if it is worth while, around this one many <lb/>shafts are sunk and tunnels are driven into the mountain. If a torrent or <lb/>spring has torn fragments of metal from such a vein, a tunnel is first driven <lb/>into the mountain or hill for the purpose of searching for the ore; then <lb/>when it is found, a vertical shaft is sunk in it. Since the whole mountain, or <lb/>more especially the whole hill, is undermined, seeing that the whole of it is <lb/>composed of ore, it is necessary to leave the natural pillars and arches, or the <lb/>place is timbered. But sometimes when a vein is very hard it is broken by <lb/>fire, whereby it happens that the soft pillars break up, or the timbers are <lb/>burnt away, and the mountain by its great weight sinks into itself, and then <lb/>the shaft buildings are swallowed up in the great subsidence. Therefore, <lb/>about a <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/> it is advisable to sink some shafts which are not sub<lb/>ject to this kind of ruin, through which the materials that are excavated may <lb/>be carried out, not only while the pillars and underpinnings still remain whole <lb/>and solid, but also after the supports have been destroyed by fire and have <lb/>fallen. Since ore which has thus fallen must necessarily be broken by fire, <lb/>new shafts through which the smoke can escape must be sunk in the abyss. <lb/>At those places where stringers intersect, richer ore is generally obtained <lb/>from the mine; these stringers, in the case of tin mines, sometimes have in <lb/>them black stones the size of a walnut. If such a vein is found in a plain, <lb/>as not infrequently happens in the case of iron, many shafts are sunk, because <lb/>they cannot be sunk very deep. The work is carried on by this method <lb/>because the miners cannot drive a tunnel into a level plain of this kind.</s>

<s>There remain the stringers in which gold alone is sometimes found, <lb/>in the vicinity of rivers and streams, or in swamps. If upon the soil being <lb/>removed, many of these are found, composed of earth somewhat baked and <lb/>burnt, as may sometimes be seen in clay pits, there is some hope that gold <lb/>may be obtained from them, especially if several join together. But the <lb/>very point of junction must be pierced, and the length and width searched <lb/>for ore, and in these places very deep shafts cannot be sunk.</s>

<s>I have completed one part of this book, and now come to the other, in <lb/>which I will deal with the art of surveying. Miners measure the solid

<pb pagenum="129"/>mass of the mountains in order that the owners may lay out their plans, and <lb/>that their workmen may not encroach on other people's possessions. The <lb/>surveyor either measures the interval not yet wholly dug through, which <lb/>lies between the mouth of a tunnel and a shaft to be sunk to that depth, or <lb/>between the mouth of a shaft and the tunnel to be driven to that spot which <lb/>lies under the shaft, or between both, if the tunnel is neither so long as to <lb/>reach to the shaft, nor the shaft so deep as to reach to the tunnel; and thus <lb/>on both sides work is still to be done. Or in some cases, within the tunnels <lb/>and drifts, are to be fixed the boundaries of the meers, just as the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>has determined the boundaries of the same meers above ground.<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>Each method of surveying depends on the measuring of triangles. A <lb/>small triangle should be laid out, and from it calculations must be made <lb/>regarding a larger one. Most particular care must be taken that we do not <lb/>deviate at all from a correct measuring; for if, at the beginning, we are drawn

<pb pagenum="130"/>by carelessness into a slight error, this at the end will produce great errors. <lb/>Now these triangles are of many shapes, since shafts differ among themselves <lb/>and are not all sunk by one and the same method into the depths of the <lb/>earth, nor do the slopes of all mountains come down to the valley or plain in <lb/>the same manner. For if a shaft is vertical, there is a triangle with a right <lb/>angle, which the Greeks call <foreign lang="greek">o)rqogw/nion</foreign> and this, according to the <lb/>inequalities of the mountain slope, has either two equal sides or three unequal <lb/>sides. The Greeks call the former <foreign lang="greek">tri/gwnon i)soskele/s</foreign> the latter <foreign lang="greek">skalhno/n</foreign> for <lb/>a right angle triangle cannot have three equal sides. If a shaft is inclined <lb/>and sunk in the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, a triangle is likewise <lb/>made with a right angle, and this again, according to the various inequalities <lb/>of the mountain slope, has either two equal or three unequal sides. But if <lb/>a shaft is inclined and is sunk in one vein, and a tunnel is driven in <lb/>another vein, then a triangle comes into existence which has either an obtuse <lb/>angle or all acute angles. The former the Greeks call <foreign lang="greek">a)mblugw/nion,</foreign> the latter <lb/><foreign lang="greek">o)xugw/nion.</foreign> That triangle which has an obtuse angle cannot have three <lb/>equal sides, but in accordance with the different mountain slopes has either <lb/>two equal sides or three unequal sides. That triangle which has all acute <lb/>angles in accordance with the different mountain slopes has either three equal <lb/>sides, which the Greeks call <foreign lang="greek">tri/gwnon i)so/pleuron</foreign> or two equal sides or three <lb/>unequal sides.</s>

<s>The surveyor, as I said, employs his art when the owners of the mines <lb/>desire to know how many fathoms of the intervening ground require to be <lb/>dug; when a tunnel is being driven toward a shaft and does not yet reach <lb/>it; or when the shaft has not yet been sunk to the depth of the bottom of the <lb/>tunnel which is under it; or when neither the tunnel reaches to that point, <lb/>nor has the shaft been sunk to it. It is of importance that miners should <lb/>know how many fathoms remain from the tunnel to the shaft, or from the <lb/>shaft to the tunnel, in order to calculate the expenditure; and in order that <lb/>the owners of a metal-bearing mine may hasten the sinking of a shaft and <lb/>the excavation of the metal, before the tunnel reaches that point and the <lb/>tunnel owners excavate part of the metal by any right of their own; and on <lb/>the other hand, it is important that the owners of a tunnel may similarly <lb/>hasten their driving before a shaft can be sunk to the depth of a tunnel, so <lb/>that they may excavate the metal to which they will have a right.</s>

<s>The surveyor, first of all, if the beams of the shaft-house do not give him <lb/>the opportunity, sets a pair of forked posts by the sides of the shaft in such <lb/>a manner that a pole may be laid across them. Next, from the pole he lets <lb/>down into the shaft a cord with a weight attached to it. Then he stretches a <lb/>second cord, attached to the upper end of the first cord, right down along the <lb/>slope of the mountain to the bottom of the mouth of the tunnel, and fixes it to <lb/>the ground. Next, from the same pole not far from the first cord, he lets <lb/>down a third cord, similarly weighted, so that it may intersect the second <lb/>cord, which descends obliquely. Then, starting from that point where the <lb/>third cord cuts the second cord which descends obliquely to the mouth of the <lb/>tunnel, he measures the second cord upward to where it reaches the end of </s>

<s>A—UPRIGHT FORKED POSTS. B—POLE OVER THE POSTS. C—SHAFT. D—FIRST CORD. <lb/>E—WEIGHT OF FIRST CORD. F—SECOND CORD. G—SAME FIXED GROUND. H—HEAD <lb/>OF FIRST CORD. I—MOUTH OF TUNNEL. K—THIRD CORD. L—WEIGHT OF THIRD CORD. <lb/>M—FIRST SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. N—SECOND SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. O—THIRD SIDE <lb/>MINOR TRIANGLE. P—THE MINOR TRIANGLE.

<pb pagenum="132"/>the first cord, and makes a note of this first side of the minor triangle<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/>Afterward, starting again from that point where the third cord intersects the <lb/>second cord, he measures the straight space which lies between that point <lb/>and the opposite point on the first cord, and in that way forms the minor <lb/>triangle, and he notes this second side of the minor triangle in the same way as <lb/>before. Then, if it is necessary, from the angle formed by the first cord and <lb/>the second side of the minor triangle, he measures upward to the end of the <lb/>first cord and also makes a note of this third side of the minor triangle. The <lb/>third side of the minor triangle, if the shaft is vertical or inclined and is sunk <lb/>on the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, will necessarily be the same <lb/>length as the third cord above the point where it intersects the second cord; <lb/>and so, as often as the first side of the minor triangle is contained in the <lb/>length of the whole cord which descends obliquely, so many times the length <lb/>of the second side of the minor triangle indicates the distance between the <lb/>mouth of the tunnel and the point to which the shaft must be sunk; and <lb/>similarly, so many times the length of the third side of the minor triangle <lb/>gives the distance between the mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the <lb/>tunnel.</s>

<s>When there is a level bench on the mountain slope, the surveyor first <lb/>measures across this with a measuring-rod; then at the edges of this bench <lb/>he sets up forked posts, and applies the principle of the triangle to the two <lb/>sloping parts of the mountain; and to the fathoms which are the length of <lb/>that part of the tunnel determined by the triangles, he adds the number <lb/>of fathoms which are the width of the bench. But if sometimes the <lb/>mountain side stands up, so that a cord cannot run down from the shaft to <lb/>the mouth of the tunnel, or, on the other hand, cannot run up from the <lb/>mouth of the tunnel to the shaft, and, therefore, one cannot connect them in <lb/>a straight line, the surveyor, in order to fix an accurate triangle, measures the <lb/>mountain; and going downward he substitutes for the first part of the cord <lb/>a pole one fathom long, and for the second part a pole half a fathom <lb/>long. Going upward, on the contrary, for the first part of the cord he sub<lb/>stitutes a pole half a fathom long, and for the next part, one a whole fathom <lb/>long; then where he requires to fix his triangle he adds a straight line to <lb/>these angles.</s>

<s>To make this system of measuring clear and more explicit, I will proceed <lb/>by describing each separate kind of triangle. When a shaft is vertical or <lb/>inclined, and is sunk in the same vein on which the tunnel is driven, there <lb/>is created, as I said, a triangle containing a right angle. Now if the minor <lb/>triangle has the two sides equal, which, in accordance with the numbering <lb/>used by surveyors, are the second and third sides, then the second and third <lb/>sides of the major triangle will be equal; and so also the intervening <lb/>distances will be equal which lie between the mouth of the tunnel and the <lb/>bottom of the shaft, and which lie between the mouth of the shaft and the <lb/>bottom of the tunnel. For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is <lb/>seven feet long and the second and likewise the third sides are five feet, and

<pb pagenum="133"/>the length shown by the cord for the side of the major triangle is 101 times <lb/>seven feet, that is 117 fathoms and five feet, then the intervening space, of <lb/>course, whether the whole of it has been already driven through or has yet <lb/>to be driven, will be one hundred times five feet, which makes eighty-three <lb/>fathoms and two feet. Anyone with this example of proportions will be <lb/>able to construct the major and minor triangles in the same way as I have <lb/>done, if there be the necessary upright posts and cross-beams. When a shaft is <lb/>vertical the triangle is absolutely upright; when it is inclined and is sunk on <lb/>the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, it is inclined toward one side. </s>

<s>A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.<lb/>Therefore, if a tunnel has been driven into the mountain for sixty fathoms, <lb/>there remains a space of ground to be penetrated twenty-three fathoms and <lb/>two feet long; for five feet of the second side of the major triangle, which <lb/>lies above the mouth of the shaft and corresponds with the first side of the <lb/>minor triangle, must not be added. Therefore, if the shaft has been sunk <lb/>in the middle of the head meer, a tunnel sixty fathoms long will reach <lb/>to the boundary of the meer only when the tunnel has been extended a <lb/>further two fathoms and two feet; but if the shaft is located in the middle of <lb/>an ordinary meer, then the boundary will be reached when the tunnel has been <lb/>driven a further length of nine fathoms and two feet. Since a tunnel, for <lb/>every one hundred fathoms of length, rises in grade one fathom, or at all <lb/>events, ought to rise as it proceeds toward the shaft, one more fathom must <lb/>always be taken from the depth allowed to the shaft, and one added to the <lb/>length allowed to the tunnel. Proportionately, because a tunnel fifty <lb/>fathoms long is raised half a fathom, this amount must be taken from the <lb/>depth of the shaft and added to the length of the tunnel. In the same way <lb/>if a tunnel is one hundred or fifty fathoms shorter or longer, the same propor<lb/>tion also must be taken from the depth of the one and added to the length <lb/>of the other. For this reason, in the case mentioned above, half a fathom <lb/>and a little more must be added to the distance to be driven through, so <lb/>that there remain twenty-three fathoms, five feet, two palms, one and a half <lb/>digits and a fifth of a digit; that is, if even the minutest proportions are <lb/>carried out; and surveyors do not neglect these without good cause. <lb/>Similarly, if the shaft is seventy fathoms deep, in order that it may reach to <lb/>the bottom of the tunnel, it still must be sunk a further depth of thirteen <lb/>fathoms and two feet, or rather twelve fathoms and a half, one foot, two <lb/>digits, and four-fifths of half a digit. And in this instance five feet must be <lb/>deducted from the reckoning, because these five feet complete the third side <lb/>of the minor triangle, which is above the mouth of the shaft, and from its

<pb pagenum="134"/>depth there must be deducted half a fathom, two palms, one and a half digits <lb/>and the fifth part of half a digit. But if the tunnel has been driven to a <lb/>point where it is under the shaft, then to reach the roof of the tunnel the <lb/>shaft must still be sunk a depth of eleven fathoms, two and a half feet, one <lb/>palm, two digits, and four-fifths of half a digit.</s>

<s>If a minor triangle is produced of the kind having three unequal sides, <lb/>then the sides of the greater triangle cannot be equal; that is, if the first <lb/>side of the minor triangle is eight feet long, the second six feet long, and the <lb/>third five feet long, and the cord along the side of the greater triangle, not <lb/>to go too far from the example just given, is one hundred and one times <lb/>eight feet, that is, one hundred and thirty-four fathoms and four feet, the <lb/>distance which lies between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of the <lb/>shaft will occupy one hundred times six feet in length, that is, one hundred <lb/>fathoms. The distance between the mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the <lb/>tunnel is one hundred times five feet, that is, eighty-three fathoms and two feet. <lb/>And so, if the tunnel is eighty-five fathoms long, the remainder to be driven <lb/>into the mountain is fifteen fathoms long, and here, too, a correction in <lb/>measurement must be taken from the depth of the shaft and added to the <lb/>length of the tunnel; what this is precisely, I will pursue no further, since <lb/>everyone having a small knowledge of arithmetic can work it out. If the <lb/>shaft is sixty-seven fathoms deep, in order that it may reach the bottom of <lb/>the tunnel, the further distance required to be sunk amounts to sixteen <lb/>fathoms and two feet.</s>

<s>A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.</s>

<s>The surveyor employs this same method in measuring the mountain, <lb/>whether the shaft and tunnel are on one and the same vein, whether the vein <lb/>is vertical or inclined, or whether the shaft is on the principal vein and the tunnel <lb/>on a transverse vein descending vertically to the depths of the earth; in the <lb/>latter case the excavation is to be made where the transverse vein cuts the <lb/>vertical vein. If the principal vein descends on an incline and the cross-vein <lb/>descends vertically, then a minor triangle is created having one obtuse angle or <lb/>all three angles acute. If the minor triangle has one angle obtuse and the two <lb/>sides which are the second and third are equal, then the second and third <lb/>sides of the major triangle will be equal, so that if the first side of the minor <lb/>triangle is nine feet, the second, and likewise the third, will be five feet. Then <lb/>the first side of the major triangle will be one hundred and one times nine <lb/>feet, or one hundred and fifty-one and one-half fathoms, and each of the <lb/>other sides of the major triangle will be one hundred times five feet, that is, <lb/>eighty-three fathoms and two feet. But when the first shaft is inclined,

<pb pagenum="135"/>generally speaking, it is not deep; but there are usually several, all <lb/>inclined, and one always following the other. Therefore, if a tunnel is seventy<lb/>seven fathoms long, it will reach to the middle of the bottom of a shaft when <lb/>six fathoms and two feet further have been sunk. But if all such inclined <lb/>shafts are seventy-six fathoms deep, in order that the last one may reach <lb/>the bottom of the tunnel, a depth of seven fathoms and two feet remains to <lb/>be sunk.</s>

<s>TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.</s>

<s>If a minor triangle is made which has an obtuse angle and three unequal <lb/>sides, then again the sides of the large triangle cannot be equal. For <lb/>example, if the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long, the second <lb/>three feet, and the third four feet, and the cord along the side of the greater <lb/>triangle one hundred and one times six feet, that is, one hundred and one <lb/>fathoms, the distance between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of <lb/>the last shaft will be a length one hundred times three feet, or fifty fathoms; <lb/>but the depth that lies between the mouth of the first shaft and the bottom of <lb/>the tunnel is one hundred times four feet, or sixty-six fathoms and four feet. <lb/>Therefore, if a tunnel is forty-four fathoms long, the remaining distance to <lb/>be driven is six fathoms. If the shafts are fifty-eight fathoms deep, the <lb/>newest will touch the bottom of the tunnel when eight fathoms and four <lb/>feet have been sunk.</s>

<s>TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.</s>

<s>If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute and its <lb/>three sides equal, then necessarily the second and third sides of the minor <lb/>triangle will be equal, and likewise the sides of the major triangle frequently <lb/>referred to will be equal. Thus if each side of the minor triangle is six feet <lb/>long, and the cord measurement for the side of the major triangle is one <lb/>hundred and one times six feet, that is, one hundred and one fathoms, then <lb/>both the distances to be dug will be one hundred fathoms. And thus if the <lb/>tunnel is ninety fathoms long, it will reach the middle of the bottom of the <lb/>last shaft when ten fathoms further have been driven. If the shafts are

<pb pagenum="136"/>ninety-five fathoms deep, the last will reach the bottom of the tunnel when <lb/>it is sunk a further depth of five fathoms.</s>

<s>A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES EQUAL.</s>

<s>If a triangle is made which has all its angles acute, but only two sides <lb/>equal, namely, the first and third, then the second and third sides are not <lb/>equal; therefore the distances to be dug cannot be equal. For example, if <lb/>the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long, and the second is four feet, <lb/>and the third is six feet, and the cord measurement for the side of the major <lb/>triangle is one hundred and one times six feet, that is, one hundred and one <lb/>fathoms, then the distance between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of <lb/>the last shaft will be sixty-six fathoms and four feet. But the distance from the <lb/>mouth of the first shaft to the bottom of the tunnel is one hundred fathoms. <lb/>So if the tunnel is sixty fathoms long, the remaining distance to be driven <lb/>into the mountain is six fathoms and four feet. If the shaft is ninety-seven <lb/>fathoms deep, the last one will reach the bottom of the tunnel when a further <lb/>depth of three fathoms has been sunk.</s>

<s>TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND TWO SIDES EQUAL, A, B, UNEQUAL SIDE C.</s>

<s>If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute, but its <lb/>three sides unequal, then again the distances to be dug cannot be equal. <lb/>For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is seven feet long, the <lb/>second side is four feet, and the third side is six feet, and the cord measure<lb/>ment for the side of the major triangle is one hundred and one times seven <lb/>feet or one hundred and seventeen fathoms and four feet, the distance <lb/>between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of the last shaft will be <lb/>four hundred feet or sixty-six fathoms, and the depth between the mouth of <lb/>the first shaft and the bottom of the tunnel will be one hundred fathoms. <lb/>Therefore, if a tunnel is fifty fathoms long, it will reach the middle of the <lb/>bottom of the newest shaft when it has been driven sixteen fathoms and four <lb/>feet further. But if the shafts are then ninety-two fathoms deep, the last

<pb pagenum="137"/>shaft will reach the bottom of the tunnel when it has been sunk a further <lb/>eight fathoms.</s>

<s>A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES UNEQUAL.</s>

<s>This is the method of the surveyor in measuring the mountain, if the <lb/>principal vein descends inclined into the depths of the earth or the transverse <lb/>vein is vertical. But if they are both inclined, the surveyor uses the same <lb/>method, or he measures the slope of the mountain separately from the slope <lb/>of the shaft. Next, if a transverse vein in which a tunnel is driven does not <lb/>cut the principal vein in that spot where the shaft is sunk, then it is necessary <lb/>for the starting point of the survey to be in the other shaft in which the <lb/>transverse vein cuts the principal vein. But if there be no shaft on that spot <lb/>where the outcrop of the transverse vein cuts the outcrop of the principal <lb/>vein, then the surface of the ground which lies between the shafts must <lb/>be measured, or that between the shaft and the place where the outcrop of <lb/>the one vein intersects the outcrop of the other.</s>

<s>Some surveyors, although they use three cords, nevertheless ascertain <lb/>only the length of a tunnel by that method of measuring, and determine <lb/>the depth of a shaft by another method; that is, by the method by <lb/>which cords are re-stretched on a level part of the mountain or in <lb/>a valley, or in flat fields, and are measured again. Some, however, do <lb/>not employ this method in surveying the depth of a shaft and the <lb/>length of a tunnel, but use only two cords, a graduated hemicycle<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> and a <lb/>rod half a fathom long. They suspend in the shaft one cord, fastened <lb/>from the upper pole and weighted, just as the others do. Fastened to the <lb/>upper end of this cord, they stretch another right down the slope of the mountain <lb/>to the bottom of the mouth of the tunnel and fix it to the ground. Then to <lb/>the upper part of this second cord they apply on its lower side the broad part <lb/>of a hemicycle. This consists of half a circle, the outer margin of which is <lb/>covered with wax, and within this are six semi-circular lines. From the

<pb pagenum="138"/>waxed margin through the first semi-circular line, and reaching to the second, <lb/>there proceed straight lines converging toward the centre of the hemicycle; <lb/>these mark the middles of intervening spaces lying between other straight lines <lb/>which extend to the fourth semi-circular line. But all lines whatsoever, from <lb/>the waxed margin up to the fourth line, whether they go beyond it or not, <lb/>correspond with the graduated lines which mark the minor spaces of a rod. <lb/>Those which go beyond the fourth line correspond with the lines marking </s>

<s>A—WAXED SEMICIRCLE OF THE HEMICYCLE. B—SEMICIRCULAR LINES. C—STRAIGHT <lb/>LINES. D—LINE MEASURING THE HALF. E—LINE MEASURING THE WHOLE. F—TONGUE.

<pb pagenum="139"/>the major spaces on the rod, and those which proceed further, mark the <lb/>middle of the intervening space which lies between the others. The <lb/>straight lines, which run from the fifth to the sixth semi-circular line, show <lb/>nothing further. Nor does the line which measures the half, show anything <lb/>when it has already passed from the sixth straight line to the base of the <lb/>hemicycle. When the hemicycle is applied to the cord, if its tongue indicates <lb/>the sixth straight line which lies between the second and third semi-circular <lb/>lines, the surveyor counts on the rod six lines which separate the minor <lb/>spaces, and if the length of this portion of the rod be taken from the second <lb/>cord, as many times as the cord itself is half-fathoms long, the remaining <lb/>length of cord shows the distance the tunnel must be driven to reach under <lb/>the shaft. But if he sees that the tongue has gone so far that it marks the <lb/>sixth line between the fourth and fifth semi-circular lines, he counts six lines <lb/>which separate the major spaces on the rod; and this entire space is deducted <lb/>from the length of the second cord, as many times as the number of whole <lb/>fathoms which the cord contains; and then, in like manner, the remaining <lb/>length of cord shows us the distance the tunnel must be driven to reach <lb/>under the shaft.<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST CORD. B—SECOND CORD. C—THIRD CORD. <lb/>D—TRIANGLE.</s>

<s>Both these surveyors, as well as the others, in the first place make use <lb/>of the haulage rope. These they measure by means of others made of linden <lb/>bark, because the latter do not stretch at all, while the former become very <lb/>slack. These cords they stretch on the surveyor's field, the first one to <lb/>represent the parts of mountain slopes which descend obliquely. Then the <lb/>second cord, which represents the length of the tunnel to be driven to reach <lb/>the shaft, they place straight, in such a direction that one end of it can touch <lb/>the lower end of the first cord; then they similarly lay the third cord straight, <lb/>and in such a direction that its upper end may touch the upper end of <lb/>the first cord, and its lower end the other extremity of the second cord, and <lb/>thus a triangle is formed. This third cord is measured by the instrument <lb/>with the index, to determine its relation to the perpendicular; and the length <lb/>of this cord shows the depth of the shaft.</s>

<s>Some surveyors, to make their system of measuring the depth of a shaft <lb/>more certain, use five stretched cords: the first one descending obliquely; <lb/>two, that is to say the second and third, for ascertaining the length of the <lb/>tunnel; two for the depth of the shaft; in which way they form a quadrangle <lb/>divided into two equal triangles, and this tends to greater accuracy.</s>

<s>STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST. B—SECOND. B—THIRD. C—FOURTH. C—FIFTH. <lb/>D—QUADRANGLE.</s>

<s>These systems of measuring the depth of a shaft and the length of a <lb/>tunnel, are accurate when the vein and also the shaft or shafts go down to the

<pb pagenum="141"/>tunnel vertically or inclined, in an uninterrupted c<gap/>se. The same is true <lb/>when a tunnel runs straight on to a shaft. But when each of them bends <lb/>now in this, now in that direction, if they have not been completely driven <lb/>and sunk, no living man is clever enough to judge how far they are deflected <lb/>from a straight course. But if the whole of either one of the two has been ex<lb/>cavated its full distance, then we can estimate more easily the length of one, <lb/>or the depth of the other; and so the location of the tunnel, which is below <lb/>a newly-started shaft, is determined by a method of surveying which I will <lb/>describe. First of all a tripod is fixed at the mouth of the tunnel, and likewise at <lb/>the mouth of the shaft which has been started, or at the place where the shaft will <lb/>be started. The tripod is made of three stakes fixed to the ground, a small <lb/>rectangular board being placed upon the stakes and fixed to them, and on <lb/>this is set a compass. Then from the lower tripod a weighted cord is let <lb/>down perpendicularly to the earth, close to which cord a stake is fixed in the <lb/>ground. To this stake another cord is tied and drawn straight into the tunnel <lb/>to a point as far as it can go without being bent by the hangingwall or the <lb/>footwall of the vein. Next, from the cord which hangs from the lower tripod, <lb/>a third cord likewise fixed is brought straight up the sloping side of the <lb/>mountain to the stake of the upper tripod, and fastened to it. In order that <lb/>the measuring of the depth of the shaft may be more certain, the third cord <lb/>should touch one and the same side of the cord hanging from the lower tripod <lb/>which is touched by the second cord—the one which is drawn into the tunnel. <lb/>All this having been correctly carried out, the surveyor, when at length <lb/>the cord which has been drawn straight into the tunnel is about to be bent <lb/>by the hangingwall or footwall, places a plank in the bottom of the tunnel <lb/>and on it sets the orbis, an instrument which has an indicator peculiar <lb/>to itself. This instrument, although it also has waxed circles, differs from the <lb/>other, which I have described in the third book. But by both these <lb/>instruments, as well as by a rule and a square, he determines whether the <lb/>stretched cords reach straight to the extreme end of the tunnel, or whether <lb/>they sometimes reach straight, and are sometimes bent by the footwall or <lb/>hangingwall. Each instrument is divided into parts, but the compass into <lb/>twenty-four parts, the orbis into sixteen parts; for first of all it is divided <lb/>into four principal parts, and then each of these is again divided into four. <lb/>Both have waxed circles, but the compass has seven circles, and the orbis <lb/>only five circles. These waxed circles the surveyor marks, whichever instru<lb/>ment he uses, and by the succession of these same marks he notes any <lb/>change in the direction in which the cord extends. The orbis has an open<lb/>ing running from its outer edge as far as the centre, into which opening he <lb/>puts an iron screw, to which he binds the second cord, and by screwing it into <lb/>the plank, fixes it so that the orbis may be immovable. He takes care <lb/>to prevent the second cord, and afterward the others which are put up, <lb/>from being pulled off the screw, by employing a heavy iron, into an opening <lb/>of which he fixes the head of the screw. In the case of the compass, since <lb/>it has no opening, he merely places it by the side of the screw. That the <lb/>instrument does not incline forward or backward, and in that way the

<pb pagenum="142"/>measurement become a greater length than it should be, he sets upon the <lb/>instrument a standing plummet level, the tongue of which, if the instrument <lb/>is level, indicates no numbers, but the point from which the numbers start.</s>

<s>COMPASS. A, B, C, D, E, F, G ARE THE SEVEN WAXED CIRCLES.</s>

<s>When the surveyor has carefully observed each separate angle of the <lb/>tunnel and has measured such parts as he ought to measure, then he lays <lb/>them out in the same way on the surveyor's field<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> in the open air, and again <lb/>no less carefully observes each separate angle and measures them. First of <lb/>all, to each angle, according as the calculation of his triangle and his art <lb/>require it, he lays out a straight cord as a line. Then he stretches a cord at </s>

<pb/>

<s>A, B, C, D, E—FIVE WAXED CIRCLES OF THE <emph type="italics"/>orbis.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>F—OPENING OF SAME. G—SCREW. H—PERFORATED IRON.</s>

<pb/>

<s>A—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MINOR SPACES. B—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MAJOR SPACES.

<pb pagenum="143"/>such an angle as represents the slope of the mountain, so that its lower end <lb/>may reach the end of the straight cord; then he stretches a third cord </s>

<s>A—STANDING PLUMMET LEVEL. B—TONGUE. C—LEVEL AND TONGUE.

<pb pagenum="144"/>similarly straight and at such an angle, that with its upper end it may reach <lb/>the upper end of the second cord, and with its lower end the last end of the <lb/>first cord. The length of the third cord shows the depth of the shaft, as I <lb/>said before, and at the same time that point on the tunnel to which the shaft <lb/>will reach when it has been sunk.</s>

<s>If one or more shafts reach the tunnel through intermediate drifts and <lb/>shafts, the surveyor, starting from the nearest which is open to the air, <lb/>measures in a shorter time the depth of the shaft which requires to be sunk, <lb/>than if he starts from the mouth of the tunnel. First of all he measures <lb/>that space on the surface which lies between the shaft which has been sunk <lb/>and the one which requires to be sunk. Then he measures the incline of all <lb/>the shafts which it is necessary to measure, and the length of all the drifts <lb/>with which they are in any way connected to the tunnel. Lastly, he <lb/>measures part of the tunnel; and when all this is properly done, he demon<lb/>strates the depth of the shaft and the point in the tunnel to which the shaft <lb/>will reach. But sometimes a very deep straight shaft requires to be sunk <lb/>at the same place where there is a previous inclined shaft, and to the same <lb/>depth, in order that loads may be raised and drawn straight up by machines. <lb/>Those machines on the surface are turned by horses; those inside the earth, <lb/>by the same means, and also by water-power. And so, if it becomes <lb/>necessary to sink such a shaft, the surveyor first of all fixes an iron screw <lb/>in the upper part of the old shaft, and from the screw he lets down a cord <lb/>as far as the first angle, where again he fixes a screw, and again lets down the <lb/>cord as far as the second angle; this he repeats again and again until the <lb/>cord reaches to the bottom of the shaft. Then to each angle of the cord he <lb/>applies a hemicycle, and marks the waxed semi-circle according to the lines <lb/>which the tongue indicates, and designates it by a number, in case it should be <lb/>moved; then he measures the separate parts of the cord with another cord <lb/>made of linden bark. Afterward, when he has come back out of the shaft, <lb/>he goes away and transfers the markings from the waxed semi-circle of the <lb/>hemicycle to an orbis similarly waxed. Lastly, the cords are stretched on the <lb/>surveyor's field, and he measures the angles, as the system of measuring by <lb/>triangles requires, and ascertains which part of the footwall and which <lb/>part of the hangingwall rock must be cut away in order that the shaft may <lb/>descend straight. But if the surveyor is required to show the owners of the <lb/>mine, the spot in a drift or a tunnel in which a shaft needs to be raised <lb/>from the bottom upward, that it should cut through more quickly, he <lb/>begins measuring from the bottom of the drift or tunnel, at a point <lb/>beyond the spot at which the bottom of the shaft will arrive, when it has been <lb/>sunk. When he has measured the part of the drift or tunnel up to the first <lb/>shaft which connects with an upper drift, he measures the incline of this <lb/>shaft by applying a hemicycle or orbis to the cord. Then in a like manner <lb/>he measures the upper drift and the incline shaft which is sunk therein <lb/>toward which a raise is being dug, then again all the cords are stretched in <lb/>the surveyor's field, the last cord in such a way that it reaches the first, and <lb/>then he measures them. From this measurement is known in what part

<pb pagenum="145"/>of the drift or tunnel the raise should be made, and how many fathoms of <lb/>vein remain to be broken through in order that the shaft may be connected.</s>

<s>I have described the first reason for surveying; I will now describe <lb/>another. When one vein comes near another, and their owners are different <lb/>persons who have late come into possession, whether they drive a tunnel <lb/>or a drift, or sink a shaft, they may encroach, or seem to encroach, without <lb/>any lawful right, upon the boundaries of the older owners, for which reason <lb/>the latter very often seek redress, or take legal proceedings. The surveyor <lb/>either himself settles the dispute between the owners, or by his art gives <lb/>evidence to the judges for making their decision, that one shall not encroach <lb/>on the mine of the other. Thus, first of all he measures the mines of each <lb/>party with a basket rope and cords of linden bark; and having applied to the <lb/>cords an orbis or a compass, he notes the directions in which they extend. <lb/>Then he stretches the cords on the surveyor's field; and starting from that <lb/>point whose owners are in possession of the old meer toward the other, <lb/>whether it is in the hanging or footwall of the vein, he stretches a cross<lb/>cord in a straight line, according to the sixth division of the compass, <lb/>that is, at a right angle to the vein, for a distance of three and a <lb/>half fathoms, and assigns to the older owners that which belongs to <lb/>them. But if both ends of one vein are being dug out in two tunnels, or <lb/>drifts from opposite directions, the surveyor first of all considers the lower <lb/>tunnel or drift and afterward the upper one, and judges how much each of <lb/>them has risen little by little. On each side strong men take in their hands <lb/>a stretched cord and hold it so that there is no point where it is not strained <lb/>tight; on each side the surveyor supports the cord with a rod half a fathom <lb/>long, and stays the rod at the end with a short stick as often as he thinks <lb/>it necessary. But some fasten cords to the rods to make them steadier. <lb/>The surveyor attaches a suspended plummet level to the middle of the cord to <lb/>enable him to calculate more accurately on both sides, and from this he ascer<lb/>tains whether one tunnel has risen more than another, or in like manner one <lb/>drift more than another. Afterward he measures the incline of the shafts <lb/>on both sides, so that he can estimate their position on each side. Then he <lb/>easily sees how many fathoms remain in the space which must be broken <lb/>through. But the grade of each tunnel, as I said, should rise one fathom in <lb/>the distance of one hundred fathoms.</s>

<s>The Swiss surveyors, when they wish to measure tunnels driven into <lb/>the highest mountains, also use a rod half a fathom long, but composed of <lb/>three parts, which screw together, so that they may be shortened. They <lb/>use a cord made of linden bark to which are fastened slips of paper showing <lb/>the number of fathoms. They also employ an instrument peculiar to them, <lb/>which has a needle; but in place of the waxed circles they carry in their <lb/>hands a chart on which they inscribe the readings of the instrument. The <lb/>instrument is placed on the back part of the rod so that the tongue, and the <lb/>extended cord which runs through the three holes in the tongue, demonstrates <lb/>the direction, and they note the number of fathoms. The tongue shows <lb/>whether the cord inclines forward or backward. The tongue does not hang,

<pb pagenum="146"/>as in the case of the suspended plummet level, but is fixed to the instrument in <lb/>a half-lying position. They measure the tunnels for the purpose of knowing <lb/>how many fathoms they have been increased in elevation; how many fathoms <lb/>the lower is distant from the upper one; how many fathoms of interval is </s>

<s>INDICATOR OF A SUSPENDED PLUMMET LEVEL.

<pb pagenum="147"/>not yet pierced between the miners who on opposite sides are digging on <lb/>the same vein, or cross-stringers, or two veins which are approaching one <lb/>another.</s>

<s>But I return to our mines. If the surveyor desires to fix the boundaries <lb/>of the meer within the tunnels or drifts, and mark to them with a sign cut in the <lb/>rock, in the same way that the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> has marked these boundaries <lb/>above ground, he first of all ascertains, by measuring in the manner <lb/>which I have explained above, which part of the tunnel or drift lies <lb/>beneath the surface boundary mark, stretching the cords along the drifts to <lb/>a point beyond that spot in the rock where he judges the mark should be <lb/>cut. Then, after the same cords have been laid out on the surveyor's field, <lb/>he starts from that upper cord at a point which shows the boundary mark, <lb/>and stretches another cross-cord straight downward according to the sixth </s>

<s>A—NEEDLE OF THE INSTRUMENT. B—ITS TONGUE. C, D, E—HOLES IN THE TONGUE.

<pb pagenum="148"/>division of the compass—that is at a right angle. Then that part <lb/>of the lowest cord which lies beyond the part to which the cross-cord <lb/>runs being removed, it shows at what point the boundary mark should <lb/>be cut into the rock of the tunnel or drift. The cutting is made in the <lb/>presence of the two Jurors and the manager and the foreman of each <lb/>mine. For as the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> in the presence of these same persons sets <lb/>the boundary stones on the surface, so the surveyor cuts in the rock a sign <lb/>which for this reason is called the boundary rock. If he fixes the boundary <lb/>mark of a meer in which a shaft has recently begun to be sunk on a vein, <lb/>first of all he measures and notes the incline of that shaft by the com<lb/>pass or by another way with the applied cords; then he measures all <lb/>the drifts up to that one in whose rock the boundary mark has to <lb/>be cut. Of these drifts he measures each angle; then the cords, being <lb/>laid out on the surveyor's field, in a similar way he stretches a cross<lb/>cord, as I said, and cuts the sign on the rock. But if the underground <lb/>boundary rock has to be cut in a drift which lies beneath the first drift, the <lb/>surveyor starts from the mark in the first drift, notes the different angles, <lb/>one by one, takes his measurements, and in the lower drift stretches a cord <lb/>beyond that place where he judges the mark ought to be cut; and then, <lb/>as I said before, lays out the cords on the surveyor's field. Even if a vein <lb/>runs differently in the lower drift from the upper one, in which the first <lb/>boundary mark has been cut in the rock, still, in the lower drift the mark <lb/>must be cut in the rock vertically beneath. For if he cuts the lower mark <lb/>obliquely from the upper one some part of the possession of one mine is <lb/>taken away to its detriment, and given to the other. Moreover, if it <lb/>happens that the underground boundary mark requires to be cut in an <lb/>angle, the surveyor, starting from that angle, measures one fathom toward <lb/>the front of the mine and another fathom toward the back, and from these <lb/>measurements forms a triangle, and dividing its middle by a cross-cord, <lb/>makes his cutting for the boundary mark.</s>

<s>Lastly, the surveyor sometimes, in order to make more certain, finds the <lb/>boundary of the meers in those places where many old boundary marks <lb/>are cut in the rock. Then, starting from a stake fixed on the surface, <lb/>he first of all measures to the nearest mine; then he measures one shaft <lb/>after another; then he fixes a stake on the surveyors' field, and making <lb/>a beginning from it stretches the same cords in the same way and measures <lb/>them, and again fixes in the ground a stake which for him will signify the end <lb/>of his measuring. Afterward he again measures underground from that <lb/>spot at which he left off, as many shafts and drifts as he can remember. Then <lb/>he returns to the surveyor's field, and starting again from the second stake, <lb/>makes his measurements; and he does this as far as the drift in which the <lb/>boundary mark must be cut in the rock. Finally, commencing from the <lb/>stake first fixed in the ground, he stretches a cross-cord in a straight line to <lb/>the last stake, and this shows the length of the lowest drift. The point <lb/>where they touch, he judges to be the place where the underground boundary <lb/>mark should be cut.</s>

<pb/>

<s>Digging of veins I have written of, and the timbering <lb/>of shafts, tunnels, drifts, and other excavations, <lb/>and the art of surveying. I will now speak first of <lb/>all, of the iron tools with which veins and rocks are <lb/>broken, then of the buckets into which the lumps <lb/>of earth, rock, metal, and other excavated materials <lb/>are thrown, in order that they may be drawn, con<lb/>veyed, or carried out. Also, I will speak of the <lb/>water vessels and drains, then of the machines of <lb/>different kinds,<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> and lastly of the maladies of miners. And while all these <lb/>matters are being described accurately, many methods of work will be <lb/>explained.</s>

<s>There are certain iron tools which the miners designate by names of their <lb/>own, and besides these, there are wedges, iron blocks, iron plates, hammers, <lb/>crowbars, pikes, picks, hoes, and shovels. Of those which are especially <lb/>referred to as “iron tools” there are four varieties, which are different <lb/>from one another in length or thickness, but not in shape, for the <lb/>upper end of all of them is broad and square, so that it can be struck by the

<pb pagenum="150"/>hammer. The lower end is pointed so as to split the hard rocks and veins <lb/>with its point. All of these have eyes except the fourth. The first, <lb/>which is in daily use among miners, is three-quarters of a foot long, a digit <lb/>and a half wide, and a digit thick. The second is of the same width as the <lb/>first, and the same thickness, but one and one half feet long, and is used to <lb/>shatter the hardest veins in such a way that they crack open. The third <lb/>is the same length as the second, but is a little wider and thicker; with <lb/>this one they dig the bottoms of those shafts which slowly accumulate water. <lb/>The fourth is nearly three palms and one digit long, two digits thick, and in <lb/>the upper end it is three digits wide, in the middle it is one palm wide, and <lb/>at the lower end it is pointed like the others; with this they cut out the <lb/>harder veins. The eye in the first tool is one palm distant from the upper <lb/>end, in the second and third it is seven digits distant; each swells out <lb/>around the eye on both sides, and into it they fit a wooden handle, which <lb/>they hold with one hand, while they strike the iron tool with a hammer, after <lb/>placing it against the rock. These tools are made larger or smaller as <lb/>necessary. The smiths, as far as possible, sharpen again all that become dull.</s>

<s>A—FIRST “IRON TOOL.” B—SECOND. C—THIRD. D—FOURTH.<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> E—WEDGE. F—IRON <lb/>BLOCK. G—IRON PLATE. H—WOODEN HANDLE. I—HANDLE INSERTED IN FIRST TOOL.</s>

<s>A wedge is usually three palms and two digits long and six digits wide; <lb/>at the upper end, for a distance of a palm, it is three digits thick, and <lb/>beyond that point it becomes thinner by degrees, until finally it is quite <lb/>sharp.</s>

<s>The iron block is six digits in length and width; at the upper end it is <lb/>two digits thick, and at the bottom a digit and a half. The iron plate is <lb/>the same length and width as the iron block, but it is very thin. All of these, <lb/>as I explained in the last book, are used when the hardest kind of veins are <lb/>hewn out. Wedges, locks, and plates, are likewise made larger or smaller.</s>

<s>A—SMALLEST OF THE SMALLER HAMMERS. B—INTERMEDIATE. C—LARGEST. D—SMALL <lb/>KIND OF THE LARGER HAMMER. E—LARGE KIND. F—WOODEN HANDLE. G—HANDLE <lb/>FIXED IN THE SMALLEST HAMMER.</s>

<s>Hammers are of two kinds, the smaller ones the miners hold in <lb/>one hand, and the larger ones they hold with both hands. The former, <lb/>because of their size and use, are of three sorts. With the smallest, <lb/>that is to say, the lightest, they strike the second “iron tool;” with the <lb/>intermediate one the first “iron tool;” and with the largest the third “iron <lb/>tool”; this one is two digits wide and thick. Of the larger sort of hammers <lb/>there are two kinds; with the smaller they strike the fourth “iron tool;” <lb/>with the larger they drive the wedges into the cracks; the former are three, <lb/>and the latter five digits wide and thick, and a foot long. All swell out in <lb/>their middle, in which there is an eye for a handle, but in most cases the <lb/>handles are somewhat light, in order that the workmen may be able to strike <lb/>more powerful blows by the hammer's full weight being thus concentrated.</s>

<s>The iron crowbars are likewise of two kinds, and each kind is pointed at <lb/>one end. One is rounded, and with this they pierce to a shaft full of water <lb/>when a tunnel reaches to it; the other is flat, and with this they knock out <lb/>of the stopes on to the floor, the rocks which have been softened by the fire, <lb/>and which cannot be dislodged by the pike. A miner's pike, like a sailor's, <lb/>is a long rod having an iron head.</s>

<s>A—ROUND CROWBAR. B—FLAT CROWBAR. C—PIKE.</s>

<s>A—PICK. B—HOE. C—SHOVEL.</s>

<s>The miner's pick differs from a peasant's pick in that the latter is wide <lb/>at the bottom and sharp, but the former is pointed. It is used to dig out <lb/>ore which is not hard, such as earth. Likewise a hoe and shovel are in no <lb/>way different from the common articles, with the one they scrape up earth <lb/>and sand, with the other they throw it into vessels.</s>

<s>Now earth, rock, mineral substances and other things dug out with <lb/>the pick or hewn out with the “iron tools” are hauled out of the shaft <lb/>in buckets, or baskets, or hide buckets; they are drawn out of tunnels in <lb/>wheelbarrows or open trucks, and from both they are sometimes carried in <lb/>trays.</s>

<s>Buckets are of two kinds, which differ in size, but not in material or <lb/>shape. The smaller for the most part hold only about one <emph type="italics"/>metreta;<emph.end type="italics"/> the <lb/>larger are generally capable of carrying one-sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>congius;<emph.end type="italics"/> neither is <lb/>of unchangeable capacity, but they often vary.<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/> Each is made of staves circled <lb/>with hoops, one of which binds the top and the other the bottom. <lb/>The hoops are sometimes made of hazel and oak, but these are easily <lb/>broken by dashing against the shaft, while those made of iron are more <lb/>durable. In the larger buckets the staves are thicker and wider, as also are <lb/>both hoops, and in order that the buckets may be more firm and strong, <lb/>they have eight iron straps, somewhat broad, four of which run from the <lb/>upper hoop downwards, and four from the lower hoop upwards, as if to meet <lb/>each other. The bottom of each bucket, both inside and outside, is furnished <lb/>with two or three straps of iron, which run from one side of the lower hoop <lb/>to the other, but the straps which are on the outside are fixed crosswise. <lb/>Each bucket has two iron hafts which project above the edge, and it has an <lb/>iron semi-circular bail whose lower ends are fixed directly into the hafts, <lb/>that the bucket may be handled more easily. Each kind of bucket is much <lb/>deeper than it is wide, and each is wider at the top, in order that the material <lb/>which is dug out may be the more easily poured in and poured out again. <lb/>Into the smaller buckets strong boys, and into larger ones men, fill earth <lb/>from the bottom of the shaft with hoes; or the other material dug up is <lb/>shovelled into them or filled in with their hands, for which reason these men <lb/>are called “shovellers.<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>” Afterward they fix the hook of the drawing-rope <lb/>into the bale; then the buckets are drawn up by machines—the smaller ones, <lb/>because of their lighter weight, by machines turned by men, and the larger <lb/>ones, being heavier, by the machines turned by horses. Some, in place <lb/>of these buckets, substitute baskets which hold just as much, or even more, <lb/>since they are lighter than the buckets; some use sacks made of ox-hide <lb/>instead of buckets, and the drawing-rope hook is fastened to their iron bale, <lb/>usually three of these filled with excavated material are drawn up at the <lb/>same time as three are being lowered and three are being filled by boys. The <lb/>latter are generally used at Schneeberg and the former at Freiberg.<lb/>

<s>A—SMALL BUCKET. B—LARGE BUCKET. C—STAVES. D—IRON HOOPS. E—IRON <lb/>STRAPS. F—IRON STRAPS ON THE BOTTOM. G—HAFTS. H—IRON BALE. I—HOOK OF <lb/>DRAWING-ROPE. K—BASKET. L—HIDE BUCKET OR SACK.</s>

<s>That which we call a <emph type="italics"/>cisíum<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> is a vehicle with one wheel, not with <lb/>two, such as horses draw. When filled with excavated material it is pushed

<pb pagenum="155"/>by a workman out of tunnels or sheds. It is made as follows: two planks <lb/>are chosen about five feet long, one foot wide, and two digits thick; of <lb/>each of these the lower side is cut away at the front for a length of one <lb/>foot, and at the back for a length of two feet, while the middle is left whole. <lb/>Then in the front parts are bored circular holes, in order that the ends of an <lb/>axle may revolve in them. The intermediate parts of the planks are <lb/>perforated twice near the bottom, so as to receive the heads of two little <lb/>cleats on which the planks are fixed; and they are also perforated in the <lb/>middle, so as to receive the heads of two end-boards, while keys fixed in <lb/>these projecting heads strengthen the whole structure. The handles are <lb/>made out of the extreme ends of the long planks, and they turn downward <lb/>at the ends that they may be grasped more firmly in the hands. The small <lb/>wheel, of which there is only one, neither has a nave nor does it revolve <lb/>around the axle, but turns around with it. From the felloe, which the <lb/>Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">a)yi_des,</foreign> two transverse spokes fixed into it pass through the <lb/>middle of the axle toward the opposite felloe; the axle is square, with <lb/>the exception of the ends, each of which is rounded so as to turn in the <lb/>opening. A workman draws out this barrow full of earth and rock and draws <lb/>it back empty. Miners also have another wheelbarrow, larger than this <lb/>one, which they use when they wash earth mixed with tin-stone on to which <lb/>a stream has been turned. The front end-board of this one is deeper, in <lb/>order that the earth which has been thrown into it may not fall out.</s>

<s>A—SMALL WHEELBARROW. B—LONG PLANKS THEREOF. C—END-BOARDS. D—SMALL <lb/>WHEEL. E—LARGER BARROW. F—FRONT END-BOARD THEREOF.</s>

<s>A—RECTANGULAR IRON BANDS ON TRUCK. B—ITS IRON STRAPS. C—IRON AXLE. <lb/>D—WOODEN ROLLERS. E—SMALL IRON KEYS. F—LARGE BLUNT IRON PIN. <lb/>G—SAME TRUCK UPSIDE DOWN.</s>

<s>The open truck has a capacity half as large again as a wheelbarrow; it is <lb/>about four feet long and about two and a half feet wide and deep; and since <lb/>its shape is rectangular, it is bound together with three rectangular iron <lb/>bands, and besides these there are iron straps on all sides. Two small iron <lb/>axles are fixed to the bottom, around the ends of which wooden rollers revolve <lb/>on either side; in order that the rollers shall not fall off the immovable <lb/>axles, there are small iron keys. A large blunt pin fixed to the bottom of the <lb/>truck runs in a groove of a plank in such a way that the truck does not <lb/>leave the beaten track. Holding the back part with his hands, the carrier <lb/>pushes out the truck laden with excavated material, and pushes it back <lb/>again empty. Some people call it a “dog”<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>, because when it moves it <lb/>makes a noise which seems to them not unlike the bark of a dog. This truck <lb/>is used when they draw loads out of the longest tunnels, both because it is <lb/>moved more easily and because a heavier load can be placed in it.</s>

<s>Bateas<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> are hollowed out of a single block of wood; the smaller kind <lb/>are generally two feet long and one foot wide. When they have been <lb/>filled with ore, especially when but little is dug from the shafts and tunnels, <lb/>men either carry them out on their shoulders, or bear them away hung from <lb/></s>

<s>A—SMALL BATEA. B—ROPE. C—LARGE BATEA.<lb/>their necks. Pliny<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> is our authority that among the ancients everything <lb/>which was mined was carried out on men's shoulders, but in truth this <lb/>method of carrying forth burdens is onerous, since it causes great fatigue <lb/>to a great number of men, and involves a large expenditure for labour; for <lb/>this reason it has been rejected and abandoned in our day. The length of <lb/>the larger batea is as much as three feet, the width up to a foot and a palm. <lb/>In these bateas the metallic earth is washed for the purpose of testing it.</s>

<s>Water-vessels differ both in the use to which they are put and in the <lb/>material of which they are made; some draw the water from the shafts and <lb/>pour it into other things, as dippers; while some of the vessels filled with <lb/>water are drawn out by machines, as buckets and bags; some are made of <lb/>wood, as the dippers and buckets, and others of hides, as the bags. The <lb/>water-buckets, just like the buckets which are filled with dry material, are of <lb/>two kinds, the smaller and the larger, but these are unlike the other buckets at <lb/>the top, as in this case they are narrower, in order that the water may not be <lb/>spilled by being bumped against the timbers when they are being drawn out <lb/>of the shafts, especially those considerably inclined. The water is poured <lb/>into these buckets by dippers, which are small wooden buckets, but unlike the <lb/>water-buckets, they are neither narrow at the top nor bound with iron hoops, <lb/>but with hazel,—because there is no necessity for either. The smaller buckets <lb/>are drawn up by machines turned by men, the larger ones by those turned by <lb/>horses.</s>

<s>A—SMALLER WATER-BUCKET. B—LARGER WATER-BUCKET. C—DIPPER</s>

<s>A—WATER-BAG WHICH TAKES IN WATER BY ITSELF. B—WATER-BAG INTO WHICH WATER <lb/>POURS WHEN IT IS PUSHED WITH A SHOVEL.</s>

<s>Our people give the name of water-bags to those very large skins for <lb/>carrying water which are made of two, or two and a half, ox-hides. When <lb/>these water-bags have undergone much wear and use, first the hair comes <lb/>off them and they become bald and shining; after this they become <lb/>torn. If the tear is but a small one, a piece of smooth notched stick is put <lb/>into the broken part, and the broken bag is bound into its notches on either <lb/>side and sewn together; but if it is a large one, they mend it with a piece of <lb/>ox-hide. The water-bags are fixed to the hook of a drawing-chain and let <lb/>down and dipped into the water, and as soon as they are filled they are drawn <lb/>up by the largest machine. They are of two kinds; the one kind take in the <lb/>water by themselves; the water pours into the other kind when it is pushed <lb/>in a certain way by a wooden shovel.</s>

<s>When the water has been drawn out from the shafts, it is run off in <lb/>troughs, or into a hopper, through which it runs into the trough. Likewise <lb/>the water which flows along the sides of the tunnels is carried off in drains. <lb/>These are composed of two hollowed beams joined firmly together, so as to <lb/>hold the water which flows through them, and they are covered by planks <lb/>all along their course, from the mouth of the tunnel right up to the extreme <lb/>end of it, to prevent earth or rock falling into them and obstructing the flow <lb/>of the water. If much mud gradually settles in them the planks are raised <lb/>and the drains are cleaned out, for they would otherwise become stopped up <lb/>and obstructed by this accident. With regard to the trough lying above </s>

<s>A—TROUGH. B—HOPPER.

<pb pagenum="160"/>ground, which miners place under the hoppers which are close by the shaft <lb/>houses, these are usually hollowed out of single trees. Hoppers are generally <lb/>made of four planks, so cut on the lower side and joined together that the <lb/>top part of the hopper is broader and the bottom part narrower.</s>

<s>I have sufficiently indicated the nature of the miners' iron tools and <lb/>their vessels. I will now explain their machines, which are of three kinds, <lb/>that is, hauling machines, ventilating machines, and ladders. By means of <lb/>the hauling machines loads are drawn out of the shafts; the ventilating <lb/>machines receive the air through their mouths and blow it into shafts or <lb/>tunnels, for if this is not done, diggers cannot carry on their labour without <lb/>great difficulty in breathing; by the steps of the ladders the miners go <lb/>down into the shafts and come up again.</s>

<s>Hauling machines are of varied and diverse forms, some of them being <lb/>made with great skill, and if I am not mistaken, they were unknown to the <lb/>Ancients. They have been invented in order that water may be drawn from <lb/>the depths of the earth to which no tunnels reach, and also the excavated <lb/>material from shafts which are likewise not connected with a tunnel, or if <lb/>so, only with very long ones. Since shafts are not all of the same depth, there <lb/>is a great variety among these hauling machines. Of those by which dry loads <lb/>are drawn out of the shafts, five sorts are in the most common use, of which <lb/>I will now describe the first. Two timbers a little longer than the shaft are <lb/>placed beside it, the one in the front of the shaft, the other at the back. <lb/>Their extreme ends have holes through which stakes, pointed at the bottom <lb/>like wedges, are driven deeply into the ground, so that the timbers may remain <lb/>stationary. Into these timbers are mortised the ends of two cross-timbers, <lb/>one laid on the right end of the shaft, while the other is far enough <lb/>from the left end that between it and that end there remains suitable <lb/>space for placing the ladders. In the middle of the cross-timbers, posts are <lb/>fixed and secured with iron keys. In hollows at the top of these posts <lb/>thick iron sockets hold the ends of the barrel, of which each end projects <lb/>beyond the hollow of the post, and is mortised into the end of another <lb/>piece of wood a foot and a half long, a palm wide and three digits thick; <lb/>the other end of these pieces of wood is seven digits wide, and into each <lb/>of them is fixed a round handle, likewise a foot and a half long. A <lb/>winding-rope is wound around the barrel and fastened to it at the <lb/>middle part. The loop at each end of the rope has an iron hook which <lb/>is engaged in the bale of a bucket, and so when the windlass revolves by <lb/>being turned by the cranks, a loaded bucket is always being drawn out of the <lb/>shaft and an empty one is being sent down into it. Two robust men turn <lb/>the windlass, each having a wheelbarrow near him, into which he unloads <lb/>the bucket which is drawn up nearest to him; two buckets generally fill a <lb/>wheelbarrow; therefore when four buckets have been drawn up, each man <lb/>runs his own wheelbarrow out of the shed and empties it. Thus it happens <lb/>that if shafts are dug deep, a hillock rises around the shed of the windlass. <lb/>If a vein is not metal-bearing, they pour out the earth and rock without <lb/>discriminating; whereas if it is metal-bearing, they preserve these materials,

<pb pagenum="161"/>which they unload separately and crush and wash. When they draw up <lb/>buckets of water they empty the water through the hopper into a trough, <lb/>through which it flows away.</s>

<s>A—TIMBER PLACED IN FRONT OF THE SHAFT. B—TIMBER PLACED AT THE BACK OF THE <lb/>SHAFT. C—POINTED STAKES. D—CROSS-TIMBERS. E—POSTS OR THICK PLANKS. <lb/>F—IRON SOCKETS. G—BARREL. H—ENDS OF BARREL. I—PIECES OF WOOD. <lb/>K—HANDLE. L—DRAWING-ROPE. M—ITS HOOK. N—BUCKET. O—BALE OF THE <lb/>BUCKET.</s>

<s>The next kind of machine, which miners employ when the shaft is <lb/>deeper, differs from the first in that it possesses a wheel as well as cranks. <lb/>This windlass, if the load is not being drawn up from a great depth, is turned <lb/>by one windlass man, the wheel taking the place of the other man. But if the <lb/>depth is greater, then the windlass is turned by three men, the wheel being <lb/>substituted for a fourth, because the barrel having been once set in motion, <lb/>the rapid revolutions of the wheel help, and it can be turned more easily. <lb/>Sometimes masses of lead are hung on to this wheel, or are fastened to the <lb/>spokes, in order that when it is turned they depress the spokes by their weight <lb/>and increase the motion; some persons for the same reason fasten into the <lb/>barrel two, three, or four iron rods, and weight their ends with lumps of lead. <lb/>The windlass wheel differs from the wheel of a carriage and from the one </s>

<s>A—BARREL. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—USUAL CRANK. D—SPOKES OF WHEEL. <lb/>E—RIM OF THE SAME WHEEL.<lb/>which is turned by water power, for it lacks the buckets of a water-wheel <lb/>and it lacks the nave of a carriage wheel. In the place of the nave it has a thick <lb/>barrel, in which are mortised the lower ends of the spokes, just as their upper <lb/>ends are mortised into the rim. When three windlass men turn this machine, <lb/>four straight levers are fixed to the one end of the barrel, and to the <lb/>other the crank which is usual in mines, and which is composed of two limbs, <lb/>of which the rounded horizontal one is grasped by the hands; the rect<lb/>angular limb, which is at right angles to the horizontal one, has mortised in its <lb/>lower end the round handle, and in the upper end the end of the barrel. This <lb/>crank is worked by one man, the levers by two men, of whom one pulls while <lb/>the other pushes; all windlass workers, whatsoever kind of a machine they <lb/>may turn, are necessarily robust that they can sustain such great toil.</s>

<s>The third kind of machine is less fatiguing for the workman, while it <lb/>raises larger loads; even though it is slower, like all other machines which <lb/>have drums, yet it reaches greater depths, even to a depth of 180 feet. It <lb/>consists of an upright axle with iron journals at its extremities, which <lb/>turn in two iron sockets, the lower of which is fixed in a block set in the <lb/>ground and the upper one in the roof beam. This axle has at its lower end a </s>

<s>A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—BLOCK. C—ROOF BEAM. D—WHEEL. E—TOOTHED-DRUM. <lb/>F—HORIZONTAL AXLE. G—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. H—DRAWING ROPE. <lb/>I—POLE. K—UPRIGHT POSTS. L—CLEATS ON THE WHEEL.<lb/>wheel made of thick planks joined firmly together, and at its upper end a <lb/>toothed drum; this toothed drum turns another drum made of rundles, which <lb/>is on a horizontal axle. A winding-rope is wound around this latter axle, <lb/>which turns in iron bearings set in the beams. So that they may not fall, the <lb/>two workmen grasp with their hands a pole fixed to two upright posts, and <lb/>then pushing the cleats of the lower wheel backward with their feet, they <lb/>revolve the machine; as often as they have drawn up and emptied one <lb/>bucket full of excavated material, they turn the machine in the opposite <lb/>direction and draw out another.</s>

<s>The fourth machine raises burdens once and a half as large again as the <lb/>two machines first explained. When it is made, sixteen beams are erected <lb/>each forty feet long, one foot thick and one foot wide, joined at the top with <lb/>clamps and widely separated at the bottom. The lower ends of all of <lb/>them are mortised into separate sills laid flat upon the ground; these sills <lb/>are five feet long, a foot and a half wide, and a foot thick. Each beam is also <lb/>connected with its sill by a post, whose upper end is mortised into the beam

<pb pagenum="164"/>and its lower end mortised into the sill; these posts are four feet long, one <lb/>foot thick, and one foot wide. Thus a circular area is made, the diameter of <lb/>which is fifty feet; in the middle of this area a hole is sunk to a depth of ten <lb/>feet, and rammed down tight, and in order to give it sufficient firmness, it is <lb/>strengthened with contiguous small timbers, through which pins are driven, <lb/>for by them the earth around the hole is held so that it cannot fall in. In <lb/>the bottom of the hole is planted a sill, three or four feet long and a foot and a <lb/>half thick and wide; in order that it may remain fixed, it is set into the small <lb/>timbers; in the middle of it is a steel socket in which the pivot of the axle turns. <lb/>In like manner a timber is mortised into two of the large beams, at the top <lb/>beneath the clamps; this has an iron bearing in which the other iron journal of <lb/>the axle revolves. Every axle used in mining, to speak of them once for all, <lb/>has two iron journals, rounded off on all sides, one fixed with keys in the centre <lb/>of each end. That part of this journal which is fixed to the end <lb/>of the axle is as broad as the end itself and a digit thick; that which <lb/>projects beyond the axle is round and a palm thick, or thicker if necessity <lb/>requires; the ends of each miner's axle are encircled and bound by an <lb/>iron band to hold the journal more securely. The axle of this machine, <lb/>except at the ends, is square, and is forty feet long, a foot and a half thick <lb/>and wide. Mortised and clamped into the axle above the lower end are the <lb/>ends of four inclined beams; their outer ends support two double cross<lb/>beams similarly mortised into them; the inclined beams are eighteen feet <lb/>long, three palms thick, and five wide. The two cross-beams are fixed to <lb/>the axle and held together by wooden keys so that they will not separate, <lb/>and they are twenty-four feet long. Next, there is a drum which is made of <lb/>three wheels, of which the middle one is seven feet distant from the upper <lb/>one and from the lower one; the wheels have four spokes which are <lb/>supported by the same number of inclined braces, the lower ends of which <lb/>are joined together round the axle by a clamp; one end of each spoke is <lb/>mortised into the axle and the other into the rim. There are rundles all <lb/>round the wheels, reaching from the rim of the lowest one to the rim of the <lb/>middle one, and likewise from the rim of the middle wheel to the rim of the top <lb/>one; around these rundles are wound the drawing-ropes, one between the lowest <lb/>wheel and the middle one, the other between the middle and top wheels. <lb/>The whole of this construction is shaped like a cone, and is covered with a <lb/>shingle roof, with the exception of that square part which faces the shaft. <lb/>Then cross-beams, mortised at both ends, connect a double row of upright <lb/>posts; all of these are eighteen feet long, but the posts are one foot thick <lb/>and one foot wide, and the cross-beams are three palms thick and wide. <lb/>There are sixteen posts and eight cross-beams, and upon these cross-beams <lb/>are laid two timbers a foot wide and three palms thick, hollowed out to a <lb/>width of half a foot and to a depth of five digits; the one is laid upon the <lb/>upper cross-beams and the other upon the lower; each is long enough to <lb/>reach nearly from the drum of the whim to the shaft. Near the same drum <lb/>each timber has a small round wooden roller six digits thick, whose ends are </s>

<s>A—UPRIGHT BEAMS. B—SILLS LAID FLAT UPON THE GROUND. C—POSTS. D—AREA. <lb/>E—SILL SET AT THE BOTTOM OF THE HOLE. F—AXLE. G—DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. <lb/>H—DRUM. I—WINDING-ROPES. K—BUCKET. L—SMALL PIECES OF WOOD HANGING <lb/>FROM DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. M—SHORT WOODEN BLOCK. N—CHAIN. O—POLE BAR. <lb/>P—GRAPPLING HOOK. (Some members mentioned in the text are not shown).

<pb pagenum="166"/>covered with iron bands and revolve in iron rings. Each timber also has a <lb/>wooden pulley, which together with its iron axle revolves in holes in the <lb/>timber. These pulleys are hollowed out all round, in order that the drawing<lb/>rope may not slip out of them, and thus each rope is drawn tight and turns <lb/>over its own roller and its own pulley. The iron hook of each rope is engaged <lb/>with the bale of the bucket. Further, with regard to the double cross<lb/>beams which are mortised to the lower part of the main axle, to each end <lb/>of them there is mortised a small piece of wood four feet long. These appear <lb/>to hang from the double cross-beams, and a short wooden block is fixed to the <lb/>lower part of them, on which a driver sits. Each of these blocks has an iron <lb/>clavis which holds a chain, and that in turn a pole-bar. In this way it is <lb/>possible for two horses to draw this whim, now this way and now that; turn <lb/>by turn one bucket is drawn out of the shaft full and another is let down <lb/>into it empty; if, indeed, the shaft is very deep four horses turn the whim. <lb/>When a bucket has been drawn up, whether filled with dry or wet materials, <lb/>it must be emptied, and a workman inserts a grappling hook and overturns <lb/>it; this hook hangs on a chain made of three or four links, fixed to a timber.</s>

<s>The fifth machine is partly like the whim, and partly like the third rag <lb/>and chain pump, which draws water by balls when turned by horse power, <lb/>as I will explain a little later. Like this pump, it is turned by horse <lb/>power and has two axles, namely, an upright one—about whose lower end, <lb/>which decends into an underground chamber, there is a toothed drum—and a <lb/>horizontal one, around which there is a drum made of rundles. It has indeed <lb/>two drums around its horizontal axle, similar to those of the big machine, but <lb/>smaller, because it draws buckets from a shaft almost two hundred and forty <lb/>feet deep. One drum is made of hubs to which cleats are fixed, and <lb/>the other is made of rundles; and near the latter is a wheel two <lb/>feet deep, measured on all sides around the axle, and one foot wide; and <lb/>against this impinges a brake,<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> which holds the whim when occasion demands <lb/>that it be stopped. This is necessary when the hide buckets are emptied <lb/>after being drawn up full of rock fragments or earth, or as often as water <lb/>is poured out of buckets similarly drawn up; for this machine not only <lb/>raises dry loads, but also wet ones, just like the other four machines which <lb/>I have already described. By this also, timbers fastened on to its winding<lb/>chain are let down into a shaft. The brake is made of a piece of wood one <lb/>foot thick and half a foot long, projecting from a timber that is suspended <lb/>by a chain from one end of a beam which oscillates on an iron pin, this in <lb/>turn being supported in the claws of an upright post; and from the other end <lb/>of this oscillating beam a long timber is suspended by a chain, and from this <lb/>long timber again a short beam is suspended. A workman sits on the short <lb/>beam when the machine needs to be stopped, and lowers it; he then inserts <lb/>a plank or small stick so that the two timbers are held down and cannot be <lb/>raised. In this way the brake is raised, and seizing the drum, presses it <lb/>so tightly that sparks often fly from it; the suspended timber to which <lb/>the short beam is attached, has several holes in which the chain is </s>

<s>A—TOOTHED DRUM WHICH IS ON THE UPRIGHT AXLE. B—HORIZONTAL AXLE. C—DRUM <lb/>WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. D—WHEEL NEAR IT. E—DRUM MADE OF HUBS. <lb/>F—BRAKE. G—OSCILLATING BEAM. H—SHORT BEAM. I—HOOK.

<pb pagenum="168"/>fixed, so that it may be raised as much as is convenient. Above this wheel <lb/>there are boards to prevent the water from dripping down and wetting it, for <lb/>if it becomes wet the brake will not grip the machine so well. Near the <lb/>other drum is a pin from which hangs a chain, in the last link of which there <lb/>is an iron hook three feet long; a ring is fixed to the bottom of the bucket, <lb/>and this hook, being inserted into it, holds the bucket back so that the water <lb/>may be poured out or the fragments of rock emptied.</s>

<s>The miners either carry, draw, or roll down the mountains the ore which <lb/>is hauled out of the shafts by these five machines or taken out of the <lb/>tunnels. In the winter time our people place a box on a sledge and draw <lb/>it down the low mountains with a horse; and in this season they <lb/>also fill sacks made of hide and load them on dogs, or place two or <lb/>three of them on a small sledge which is higher in the fore part and lower at <lb/>the back. Sitting on these sacks, not without risk of his life, the bold <lb/>driver guides the sledge as it rushes down the mountain into the valleys with <lb/>a stick, which he carries in his hand; when it is rushing down too <lb/>quickly he arrests it with the stick, or with the same stick brings it back to <lb/>the track when it is turning aside from its proper course. Some of the </s>

<s>A—SLEDGE WITH BOX PLACED ON IT. B—SLEDGE WITH SACKS PLACED ON IT. C—STICK. <lb/>D—DOGS WITH PACK-SADDLES. E—PIG-SKIN SACKS TIED TO A ROPE.

<pb pagenum="169"/>Noricians<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> collect ore during the winter into sacks made of bristly pigskins, <lb/>and drag them down from the highest mountains, which neither horses, <lb/>mules nor asses can climb. Strong dogs, that are trained to bear pack <lb/>saddles, carry these sacks when empty into the mountains. When they <lb/>are filled with ore, bound with thongs, and fastened to a rope, a man, <lb/>winding the rope round his arm or breast, drags them down through the <lb/>snow to a place where horses, mules, or asses bearing pack-saddles can <lb/>climb. There the ore is removed from the pigskin sacks and put into other <lb/>sacks made of double or triple twilled linen thread, and these placed on the <lb/>pack-saddles of the beasts are borne down to the works where the ores <lb/>are washed or smelted. If, indeed, the horses, mules, or asses are able <lb/>to climb the mountains, linen sacks filled with ore are placed on their saddles, <lb/>and they carry these down the narrow mountain paths, which are passable <lb/>neither by wagons nor sledges, into the valleys lying below the steeper <lb/>portions of the mountains. But on the declivity of cliffs which beasts cannot <lb/>climb, are placed long open boxes made of planks, with transverse cleats to <lb/>hold them together; into these boxes is thrown the ore which has been <lb/>brought in wheelbarrows, and when it has run down to the level it is gathered <lb/>into sacks, and the beasts either carry it away on their backs or drag it away <lb/>after it has been thrown into sledges or wagons. When the drivers bring <lb/>ore down steep mountain slopes they use two-wheeled carts, and they drag <lb/>behind them on the ground the trunks of two trees, for these by their weight <lb/>hold back the heavily-laden carts, which contain ore in their boxes, and check <lb/>their descent, and but for these the driver would often be obliged to <lb/>bind chains to the wheels. When these men bring down ore from mountains <lb/>which do not have such declivities, they use wagons whose beds are twice <lb/>as long as those of the carts. The planks of these are so put together that, <lb/>when the ore is unloaded by the drivers, they can be raised and taken apart, <lb/>for they are only held together by bars. The drivers employed by the owners <lb/>of the ore bring down thirty or sixty wagon-loads, and the master of the <lb/>works marks on a stick the number of loads for each driver. But some <lb/>ore, especially tin, after being taken from the mines, is divided into eight <lb/>parts, or into nine, if the owners of the mine give “ninth parts” to the <lb/>owners of the tunnel. This is occasionally done by measuring with a bucket, <lb/>but more frequently planks are put together on a spot where, with the <lb/>addition of the level ground as a base, it forms a hollow box. Each owner <lb/>provides for removing, washing, and smelting that portion which has fallen <lb/>to him. (Illustration p. 170).</s>

<s>Into the buckets, drawn by these five machines, the boys or men throw <lb/>the earth and broken rock with shovels, or they fill them with their hands; <lb/>hence they get their name of shovellers. As I have said, the same <lb/>machines raise not only dry loads, but also wet ones, or water; but before <lb/>I explain the varied and diverse kinds of machines by which miners are wont </s>

<s>A—HORSES WITH PACK-SADDLES. B—LONG BOX PLACED ON THE SLOPE OF THE CLIFF. <lb/>C—CLEATS THEREOF. D—WHEELBARROW. E—TWO-WHEELED CART. F—TRUNKS OF <lb/>TREES. G—WAGON. H—ORE BEING UNLOADED FROM THE WAGON. I—BARS. <lb/>K—MASTER OF THE WORKS MARKING THE NUMBER OF CARTS ON A STICK. L—BOXES <lb/>INTO WHICH ARE THROWN THE ORE WHICH HAS TO BE DIVIDED.

<pb pagenum="171"/>to draw water alone, I will explain how heavy bodies, such as axles, iron <lb/>chains, pipes, and heavy timbers, should be lowered into deep vertical shafts. <lb/>A windlass is erected whose barrel has on each end four straight levers; it <lb/>is fixed into upright beams and around it is wound a rope, one end of which <lb/>is fastened to the barrel and the other to those heavy bodies which are slowly <lb/>lowered down by workmen; and if these halt at any part of the shaft they <lb/>are drawn up a little way. When these bodies are very heavy, then behind <lb/>this windlass another is erected just like it, that their combined strength <lb/>may be equal to the load, and that it may be lowered slowly. Sometimes for <lb/>the same reason, a pulley is fastened with cords to the roof-beam, and the rope <lb/>descends and ascends over it.</s>

<s>A—WINDLASS. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—UPRIGHT BEAMS. D—ROPE. E—PULLEY. <lb/>F—TIMBERS TO BE LOWERED.</s>

<s>Water is either hoisted or pumped out of shafts. It is hoisted up after <lb/>being poured into buckets or water-bags; the water-bags are generally <lb/>brought up by a machine whose water-wheels have double paddles, while the <lb/>buckets are brought up by the five machines already described, although in <lb/>certain localities the fourth machine also hauls up water-bags of moderate <lb/>size. Water is drawn up also by chains of dippers, or by suction pumps, or

<pb pagenum="172"/>by “rag and chain” pumps.<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> When there is but a small quantity, it is <lb/>either brought up in buckets or drawn up by chains of dippers or suction <lb/>pumps, and when there is much water it is either drawn up in hide bags or <lb/>by rag and chain pumps.</s>

<s>First of all, I will describe the machines which draw water by chains <lb/>of dippers, of which there are three kinds. For the first, a frame is <lb/>made entirely of iron bars: it is two and a half feet high, likewise two and <lb/>a half feet long, and in addition one-sixth and one-quarter of a digit <lb/>long, one-fourth and one-twenty-fourth of a foot wide. In it there are three <lb/>little horizontal iron axles, which revolve in bearings or wide pillows of steel. <lb/>and also four iron wheels, of which two are made with rundles and the same <lb/>number are toothed. Outside the frame, around the lowest axle, is a <lb/>wooden fly-wheel, so that it can be more readily turned, and inside the frame <lb/>is a smaller drum which is made of eight rundles, one-sixth and one twenty<lb/>fourth of a foot long. Around the second axle, which does not project <lb/>beyond the frame, and is therefore only two and a half feet and one-twelfth <lb/>and one-third part of a digit long, there is on the one side, a smaller toothed <lb/>wheel, which has forty-eight teeth, and on the other side a larger drum, <lb/>which is surrounded by twelve rundles one-quarter of a foot long. Around the <lb/>third axle, which is one inch and one-third thick, is a larger toothed wheel <lb/>projecting one foot from the axle in all directions, which has seventy-two <lb/>teeth. The teeth of each wheel are fixed in with screws, whose threads are <lb/>screwed into threads in the wheel, so that those teeth which are broken can be <lb/>replaced by others; both the teeth and rundles are steel. The upper axle <lb/>projects beyond the frame, and is so skilfully mortised into the body of <lb/>another axle that it has the appearance of being one; this axle proceeds <lb/>through a frame made of beams which stands around the shaft, into an iron <lb/>fork set in a stout oak timber, and turns on a roller made of pure steel. <lb/>Around this axle is a drum of the kind possessed by those machines which <lb/>draw water by rag and chain; this drum has triple curved iron clamps, <lb/>to which the links of an iron chain hook themselves, so that a great weight <lb/>cannot tear them away. These links are not whole like the links of other <lb/>chains, but each one being curved in the upper part on each side catches the <lb/>one which comes next, whereby it presents the appearance of a double chain. <lb/>At the point where one catches the other, dippers made of iron or brass plates <lb/>and holding half a <emph type="italics"/>congíus<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> are bound to them with thongs; thus, if there are <lb/>one hundred links there will be the same number of dippers pouring out water. <lb/>When the shafts are inclined, the mouths of the dippers project and are covered <lb/>on the top that they may not spill out the water, but when the shafts are <lb/>vertical the dippers do not require a cover. By fitting the end of the lowest <lb/>small axle into the crank, the man who works the crank turns the axle, and at <lb/>the same time the drum whose rundles turn the toothed wheel of the second <lb/>axle; by this wheel is driven the one that is made of rundles, which <lb/></s>

<s>A—IRON FRAME. B—LOWEST AXLE. C—FLY-WHEEL. D—SMALLER DRUM MADE OF <lb/>RUNDLES. E—SECOND AXLE. F—SMALLER TOOTHED WHEEL G—LARGER DRUM MADE <lb/>OF RUNDLES. H—UPPER AXLE. I—LARGER TOOTHED WHEEL. K—BEARINGS. <lb/>L—PILLOW. M—FRAMEWORK. N—OAK TIMBER O—SUPPORT OF IRON BEARING <lb/>P—ROLLER Q—UPPER DRUM. R—CLAMPS. S—CHAIN. T—LINKS. V—DIPPERS <lb/>X—CRANK. Y—LOWER DRUM OR BALANCE WEIGHT.

<pb pagenum="174"/>again turns the toothed wheel of the upper small axle and thus the drum to <lb/>which the clamps are fixed. In this way the chain, together with the empty <lb/>dippers, is slowly let down, close to the footwall side of the vein, into the sump <lb/>to the bottom of the balance drum, which turns on a little iron axle, both ends <lb/>of which are set in a thick iron bearing. The chain is rolled round the drum <lb/>and the dippers fill with water; the chain being drawn up close to the hanging<lb/>wall side, carries the dippers filled with water above the drum of the upper <lb/>axle. Thus there are always three of the dippers inverted and pouring <lb/>water into a lip, from which it flows away into the drain of the tunnel. This <lb/>machine is less useful, because it cannot be constructed without great expense, <lb/>and it carries off but little water and is somewhat slow, as also are other <lb/>machines which possess a great number of drums.</s>

<s>A—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. B—AXLE. C—DOUBLE CHAIN. D—LINK <lb/>OF DOUBLE CHAIN. E—DIPPERS. F—SIMPLE CLAMPS. G—CLAMP WITH TRIPLE CURVES.</s>

<s>The next machine of this kind, described in a few words by Vitruvius,<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>more rapidly brings up dippers, holding a <emph type="italics"/>congius;<emph.end type="italics"/> for this reason, it is

<pb pagenum="175"/>more useful than the first one for drawing water out of shafts, into which <lb/>much water is continually flowing. This machine has no iron frame nor <lb/>drums, but has around its axle a wooden wheel which is turned by treading; <lb/>the axle, since it has no drum, does not last very long. In other respects <lb/>this pump resembles the first kind, except that it differs from it by having <lb/>a double chain. Clamps should be fixed to the axle of this machine, just as <lb/>to the drum of the other one; some of these are made simple and others <lb/>with triple curves, but each kind has four barbs.</s>

<s>The third machine, which far excels the two just described, is made <lb/>when a running stream can be diverted to a mine; the impetus of the <lb/>stream striking the paddles revolves a water-wheel in place of the wheel <lb/>turned by treading. With regard to the axle, it is like the second machine, </s>

<s>A—WHEEL WHOSE PADDLES ARE TURNED BY THE FORCE OF THE STREAM. B—AXLE. <lb/>C—DRUM OF AXLE, TO WHICH CLAMPS ARE FIXED. D—CHAIN. E—LINK. F—DIPPERS. <lb/>G—BALANCE DRUM.<lb/>but the drum which is round the axle, the chain, and the balance drum, are <lb/>like the first machine. It has much more capacious dippers than even the <lb/>second machine, but since the dippers are frequently broken, miners rarely <lb/>use these machines; for they prefer to lift out small quantities of water by <lb/>the first five machines or to draw it up by suction pumps, or, if there is

<pb pagenum="176"/>much water, to drain it by the rag and chain pump or to bring it up in <lb/>water-bags.</s>

<s>Enough, then, of the first sort of pumps. I will now explain the other, <lb/>that is the pump which draws, by means of pistons, water which has been <lb/>raised by suction. Of these there are seven varieties, which though they <lb/>differ from one another in structure, nevertheless confer the same benefits <lb/>upon miners, though some to a greater degree than others. The first pump <lb/>is made as follows. Over the sump is placed a flooring, through which a <lb/>pipe—or two lengths of pipe, one of which is joined into the other—are let <lb/>down to the bottom of the sump; they are fastened with pointed iron clamps <lb/>driven in straight on both sides, so that the pipes may remain fixed. The <lb/>lower end of the lower pipe is enclosed in a trunk two feet deep; this trunk, <lb/>hollow like the pipe, stands at the bottom of the sump, but the lower opening <lb/>of it is blocked with a round piece of wood; the trunk has perforations <lb/>round about, through which water flows into it. If there is one length of <lb/>pipe, then in the upper part of the trunk which has been hollowed out there is <lb/>enclosed a box of iron, copper, or brass, one palm deep, but without a bottom, <lb/>and a rounded valve so tightly closes it that the water, which has been drawn <lb/>up by suction, cannot run back; but if there are two lengths of pipe, the <lb/>box is enclosed in the lower pipe at the point of junction. An opening or a <lb/>spout in the upper pipe reaches to the drain of the tunnel. Thus the work<lb/>man, eager at his labour, standing on the flooring boards, pushes the piston <lb/>down into the pipe and draws it out again. At the top of the piston-rod is a <lb/>hand-bar and the bottom is fixed in a shoe; this is the name given to the <lb/>leather covering, which is almost cone-shaped, for it is so stitched that it is <lb/>tight at the lower end, where it is fixed to the piston-rod which it surrounds, <lb/>but in the upper end where it draws the water it is wide open. Or else an <lb/>iron disc one digit thick is used, or one of wood six digits thick, each of which <lb/>is far superior to the shoe. The disc is fixed by an iron key which pene<lb/>trates through the bottom of the piston-rod, or it is screwed on to the <lb/>rod; it is round, with its upper part protected by a cover, and has five or <lb/>six openings, either round or oval, which taken together present a star-like <lb/>appearance; the disc has the same diameter as the inside of the pipe, <lb/>so that it can be just drawn up and down in it. When the workman draws <lb/>the piston up, the water which has passed in at the openings of the disc, <lb/>whose cover is then closed, is raised to the hole or little spout, through which <lb/>it flows away; then the valve of the box opens, and the water which has <lb/>passed into the trunk is drawn up by the suction and rises into the pipe; <lb/>but when the workman pushes down the piston, the valve closes and allows <lb/>the disc again to draw in the water.</s>

<s>The piston of the second pump is more easily moved up and down. When <lb/>this pump is made, two beams are placed over the sump, one near the right side <lb/>of it, and the other near the left. To one beam a pipe is fixed with iron clamps; <lb/>to the other is fixed either the forked branch of a tree or a timber cut out at <lb/>the top in the shape of a fork, and through the prongs of the fork a round <lb/>hole is bored. Through a wide round hole in the middle of a sweep passes </s>

<s>A—SUMP. B—PIPES. C—FLOORING. D—TRUNK. E—PERFORATIONS OF TRUNK. <lb/>F—VALVE. G—SPOUT. H—PISTON-ROD. I—HAND-BAR OF PISTON. K—SHOE. L—DISC <lb/>WITH ROUND OPENINGS. M—DISC WITH OVAL OPENINGS. N—COVER. O—THIS MAN IS <lb/>BORING LOGS AND MAKING THEM INTO PIPES. P—BORER WITH AUGER. Q—WIDER BORER.</s>

<s>A—ERECT TIMBER. B—AXLE. C—SWEEP WHICH TURNS ABOUT THE AXLE. D—PISTON <lb/>ROD. E—CROSS-BAR. F—RING WITH WHICH TWO PIPES ARE GENERALLY JOINED.<lb/>an iron axle, so fastened in the holes in the fork that it remains fixed, and <lb/>the sweep turns on this axle. In one end of the sweep the upper end of a <lb/>piston-rod is fastened with an iron key; at the other end a cross-bar is also <lb/>fixed, to the extreme ends of which are handles to enable it to be held more <lb/>firmly in the hands. And so when the workman pulls the cross-bar upward, <lb/>he forces the piston into the pipe; when he pushes it down again he draws <lb/>the piston out of the pipe; and thus the piston carries up the water which <lb/>has been drawn in at the openings of the disc, and the water flows away through <lb/>the spout into the drains. This pump, like the next one, is identical with <lb/>the first in all that relates to the piston, disc, trunk, box, and valve.</s>

<s>The third pump is not unlike the one just described, but in place of <lb/>one upright, posts are erected with holes at the top, and in these holes the <lb/>ends of an axle revolve. To the middle of this axle are fixed two wooden <lb/>bars, to the end of one of which is fixed the piston, and to the end of the <lb/>other a heavy piece of wood, but short, so that it can pass between the two <lb/>posts and may move backward and forward. When the workman pushes <lb/>this piece of wood, the piston is drawn out of the pipe; when it returns by its </s>

<s>A—POSTS. B—AXLE. C—WOODEN BARS. D—PISTON ROD. E—SHORT PIECE OF WOOD. <lb/>F—DRAIN. G—THIS MAN IS DIVERTING THE WATER WHICH IS FLOWING OUT OF THE DRAIN, <lb/>TO PREVENT IT FROM FLOWING INTO THE TRENCHES WHICH ARE BEING DUG.<lb/>own weight, the piston is pushed in. In this way, the water which the pipe <lb/>contains is drawn through the openings in the disc and emptied by the piston <lb/>through the spout into the drain. There are some who place a hand-bar <lb/>underneath in place of the short piece of wood. This pump, as also the last <lb/>before described, is less generally used among miners than the others.</s>

<s>The fourth kind is not a simple pump but a duplex one. It is made as <lb/>follows. A rectangular block of beechwood, five feet long, two and a half <lb/>feet wide, and one and a half feet thick, is cut in two and hollowed out wide <lb/>and deep enough so that an iron axle with cranks can revolve in it. The axle <lb/>is placed between the two halves of this box, and the first part of the axle, <lb/>which is in contact with the wood, is round and the straight end forms a <lb/>journal. Then the axle is bent down the depth of a foot and again bent so <lb/>as to continue straight, and at this point a round piston-rod hangs from it; <lb/>next it is bent up as far as it was bent down; then it continues a little way <lb/>straight again, and then it is bent up a foot and again continues straight, <lb/>at which point a second round piston-rod is hung from it; afterward it </s>

<s>A—BOX B—LOWER PART OF BOX. C—UPPER PART OF SAME. D—CLAMPS. E—PIPES <lb/>BELOW THE BOX. F—COLUMN PIPE FIXED ABOVE THE BOX. G—IRON AXLE. H—PISTON<lb/>RODS. I—WASHERS TO PROTECT THE BEARINGS. K—LEATHERS. L—EYES IN THE AXLE. <lb/>M—RODS WHOSE ENDS ARE WEIGHTED WITH LUMPS OF LEAD. N—CRANK. <lb/>(<emph type="italics"/>This plate is unlettered in the first edition but corrected in those later.<emph.end type="italics"/>)

<pb pagenum="181"/>is bent down the same distance as it was bent up the last time; the other <lb/>end of it, which also acts as a journal, is straight. This part which protrudes <lb/>through the wood is protected by two iron washers in the shape of discs, to <lb/>which are fastened two leather washers of the same shape and size, in order <lb/>to prevent the water which is drawn into the box from gushing out. These <lb/>discs are around the axle; one of them is inside the box and the other <lb/>outside. Beyond this, the end of the axle is square and has two eyes, in <lb/>which are fixed two iron rods, and to their ends are weighted lumps of lead, <lb/>so that the axle may have a greater propensity to revolve; this axle can <lb/>easily be turned when its end has been mortised in a crank. The upper part <lb/>of the box is the shallower one, and the lower part the deeper, the upper <lb/>part is bored out once straight down through the middle, the diameter of the <lb/>opening being the same as the outside diameter of the column pipe; the <lb/>lower box has, side by side, two apertures also bored straight down; <lb/>these are for two pipes, the space of whose openings therefore is twice as <lb/>great as that of the upper part; this lower part of the box is placed <lb/>upon the two pipes, which are fitted into it at their upper ends, and the <lb/>lower ends of these pipes penetrate into trunks which stand in the <lb/>sump. These trunks have perforations through which the water flows into <lb/>them. The iron axle is placed in the inside of the box, then the two iron <lb/>piston-rods which hang from it are let down through the two pipes to the depth <lb/>of a foot. Each piston has a screw at its lower end which holds a thick iron <lb/>plate, shaped like a disc and full of openings, covered with a leather, and <lb/>similarly to the other pump it has a round valve in a little box. Then the <lb/>upper part of the box is placed upon the lower one and properly fitted to it on <lb/>every side, and where they join they are bound by wide thick iron plates, and <lb/>held with small wide iron wedges, which are driven in and are fastened with <lb/>clamps. The first length of column pipe is fixed into the upper part of the <lb/>box, and another length of pipe extends it, and a third again extends this one, <lb/>and so on, another extending on another, until the uppermost one reaches the <lb/>drain of the tunnel. When the crank worker turns the axle, the pistons in <lb/>turn draw the water through their discs; since this is done quickly, and <lb/>since the area of openings of the two pipes over which the box is set, is twice <lb/>as large as the opening of the column pipe which rises from the box, and since <lb/>the pistons do not lift the water far up, the impetus of the water from the <lb/>lower pipes forces it to rise and flow out of the column pipe into the drain of <lb/>the tunnel. Since a wooden box frequently cracks open, it is better to <lb/>make it of lead or copper or brass.</s>

<s>The fifth kind of pump is still less simple, for it is composed of two or <lb/>three pumps whose pistons are raised by a machine turned by men, for each <lb/>piston-rod has a tappet which is raised, each in succession, by two cams on <lb/>a barrel; two or four strong men turn it. When the pistons descend into <lb/>the pipes their discs draw the water; when they are raised these force the <lb/>water out through the pipes. The upper part of each of these piston-rods, <lb/>which is half a foot square, is held in a slot in a cross-beam; the lower part, <lb/>which drops down into the pipes, is made of another piece of wood and is <lb/>round. Each of these three pumps is composed of two lengths of pipe fixed </s>

<s>A—TAPPETS OF PISTON-RODS. B—CAMS OF THE BARREL. C—SQUARE UPPER PARTS <lb/>OF PISTON-RODS. D—LOWER ROUNDED PARTS OF PISTON-RODS. E—CROSS-BEAMS. <lb/>F—PIPES. G—APERTURES OF PIPES. H—TROUGH. (Fifth kind of pump—see p. 181).</s>

<s>A—WATER-WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—TRUNK ON WHICH THE LOWEST PIPE STANDS. <lb/>D—BASKET SURROUNDING TRUNK. (Sixth kind of pump—see p. 184.)

<pb pagenum="184"/>to the shaft timbers. This machine draws the water higher, as much as <lb/>twenty-four feet. If the diameter of the pipes is large, only two pumps are <lb/>made; if smaller, three, so that by either method the volume of water is the <lb/>same. This also must be understood regarding the other machines and <lb/>their pipes. Since these pumps are composed of two lengths of pipe, the <lb/>little iron box having the iron valve which I described before, is not enclosed <lb/>in a trunk, but is in the lower length of pipe, at that point where it joins <lb/>the upper one; thus the rounded part of the piston-rod is only as long as <lb/>the upper length of pipe; but I will presently explain this more clearly.</s>

<s>The sixth kind of pump would be just the same as the fifth were it not <lb/>that it has an axle instead of a barrel, turned not by men but by a water<lb/>wheel, which is revolved by the force of water striking its buckets. <lb/>Since water-power far exceeds human strength, this machine draws water <lb/>through its pipes by discs out of a shaft more than one hundred feet deep. <lb/>The bottom of the lowest pipe, set in the sump, not only of this pump but <lb/>also of the others, is generally enclosed in a basket made of wicker-work, to <lb/>prevent wood shavings and other things being sucked in. (See p. 183.)</s>

<s>The seventh kind of pump, invented ten years ago, which is the most <lb/>ingenious, durable, and useful of all, can be made without much expense. It <lb/>is composed of several pumps, which do not, like those last described, go down <lb/>into the shaft together, but of which one is below the other, for if there are <lb/>three, as is generally the case, the lower one lifts the water of the sump and <lb/>pours it out into the first tank; the second pump lifts again from that tank <lb/>into a second tank, and the third pump lifts it into the drain of the tunnel. <lb/>A wheel fifteen feet high raises the piston-rods of all these pumps at the same <lb/>time and causes them to drop together. The wheel is made to revolve by <lb/>paddles, turned by the force of a stream which has been diverted to the <lb/>mountain. The spokes of the water-wheel are mortised in an axle six feet <lb/>long and one foot thick, each end of which is surrounded by an iron band, <lb/>but in one end there is fixed an iron journal; to the other end is attached an <lb/>iron like this journal in its posterior part, which is a digit thick and as wide <lb/>as the end of the axle itself. Then the iron extends horizontally, being <lb/>rounded and about three digits in diameter, for the length of a foot, and <lb/>serves as a journal; thence, it bends to a height of a foot in a curve, <lb/>like the horn of the moon, after which it again extends straight out for <lb/>one foot; thus it comes about that this last straight portion, as it <lb/>revolves in an orbit becomes alternately a foot higher and a foot lower than <lb/>the first straight part. From this round iron crank there hangs the first flat <lb/>pump-rod, for the crank is fixed in a perforation in the upper end of this flat <lb/>pump-rod just as the iron key of the first set of “claws” is fixed into the <lb/>lower end. In order to prevent the pump-rod from slipping off it, as it <lb/>could easily do, and that it may be taken off when necessary, its opening <lb/>is wider than the corresponding part of the crank, and it is fastened on <lb/>both sides by iron keys. To prevent friction, the ends of the pump-rods are <lb/>protected by iron plates or intervening leathers. This first pump-rod is <lb/>about twelve feet long, the other two are twenty-six feet, and each is a palm </s>

<s>A—SHAFT. B—BOTTOM PUMP. C—FIRST TANK. D—SECOND PUMP. E—SECOND TANK. <lb/>F—THIRD PUMP. G—TROUGH. H—THE IRON SET IN THE AXLE. I—FIRST PUMP ROD. <lb/>K—SECOND PUMP ROD. L—THIRD PUMP ROD. M—FIRST PISTON ROD. N—SECOND <lb/>PISTON ROD. O—THIRD PISTON ROD. P—LITTLE AXLES. Q—“CLAWS.”

<pb pagenum="186"/>wide and three digits thick. The sides of each pump-rod are covered and <lb/>protected by iron plates, which are held on by iron screws, so that a part <lb/>which has received damage can be repaired. In the “claws” is set a <lb/>small round axle, a foot and a half long and two palms thick. The ends are <lb/>encircled by iron bands to prevent the iron journals which revolve in the <lb/>iron bearings of the wood from slipping out of it.<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/> From this little axle <lb/>the wooden “claws” extend two feet, with a width and thickness of six <lb/>digits; they are three palms distant from each other, and both the inner and <lb/>outer sides are covered with iron plates. Two rounded iron keys two digits <lb/>thick are immovably fixed into the claws. The one of these keys per<lb/>forates the lower end of the first pump-rod, and the upper end of the second <lb/>pump-rod which is held fast. The other key, which is likewise immovable, <lb/>perforates the iron end of the first piston-rod, which is bent in a curve and <lb/>is immovable. Each such piston-rod is thirteen feet long and three digits <lb/>thick, and descends into the first pipe of each pump to such depth that its <lb/>disc nearly reaches the valve-box. When it descends into the pipe, the <lb/>water, penetrating through the openings of the disc, raises the leather, and <lb/>when the piston-rod is raised the water presses down the leather, and this <lb/>supports its weight; then the valve closes the box as a door closes an <lb/>entrance. The pipes are joined by two iron bands, one palm wide, one <lb/>outside the other, but the inner one is sharp all round that it may <lb/>fit into each pipe and hold them together. Although at the present time <lb/>pipes lack the inner band, still they have nipples by which they are joined <lb/>together, for the lower end of the upper one holds the upper end of the lower <lb/>one, each being hewn away for a length of seven digits, the former inside, the <lb/>latter outside, so that the one can fit into the other. When the piston-rod <lb/>descends into the first pipe, that valve which I have described is closed; <lb/>when the piston-rod is raised, the valve is opened so that the water can run <lb/>in through the perforations. Each one of such pumps is composed of two <lb/>lengths of pipe, each of which is twelve feet long, and the inside diameter is <lb/>seven digits. The lower one is placed in the sump of the shaft, or in a tank, <lb/>and its lower end is blocked by a round piece of wood, above which there are <lb/>six perforations around the pipe through which the water flows into it. The <lb/>upper part of the upper pipe has a notch one foot deep and a palm wide, <lb/>through which the water flows away into a tank or trough. Each tank is <lb/>two feet long and one foot wide and deep. There is the same number of <lb/>axles, “claws,” and rods of each kind as there are pumps; if there are three <lb/>pumps, there are only two tanks, because-the sump of the shaft and the drain <lb/>of the tunnel take the place of two. The following is the way this machine <lb/>draws water from a shaft. The wheel being turned raises the first pump<lb/>rod, and the pump-rod raises the first “claw,” and thus also the second <lb/>pump-rod, and the first piston-rod; then the second pump-rod raises the <lb/>second “claw,” and thus the third pump-rod and the second piston-rod; <lb/>then the third pump-rod raises the third “claw” and the third piston-rod,

<pb pagenum="187"/>for there hangs no pump-rod from the iron key of these claws, for it can be of <lb/>no use in the last pump. In turn, when the first pump-rod descends, each <lb/>set of “claws” is lowered, each pump-rod and each piston-rod. And by this <lb/>system, at the same time the water is lifted into the tanks and drained out of <lb/>them; from the sump at the bottom of the shaft it is drained out, and it <lb/>is poured into the trough of the tunnel. Further, around the main axle there <lb/>may be placed two water wheels, if the river supplies enough water to turn <lb/>them, and from the back part of each round iron crank, one or two pump-rods <lb/>can be hung, each of which can move the piston-rods of three pumps. <lb/>Lastly, it is necessary that the shafts from which the water is pumped out in <lb/>pipes should be vertical, for as in the case of the hauling machines, all pumps <lb/>which have pipes do not draw the water so high if the pipes are inclined in <lb/>inclined shafts, as if they are placed vertically in vertical shafts.</s>

<s>If the river does not supply enough water-power to turn the last<lb/>described pump, which happens because of the nature of the locality <lb/>or occurs during the summer season when there are daily droughts, a <lb/>machine is built with a wheel so low and light that the water of ever so little a </s>

<s>A—WATER WHEEL OF UPPER MACHINE. B—ITS PUMP. C—ITS TROUGH. D—WHEEL OF <lb/>LOWER MACHINE. E—ITS PUMP. F—RACE.

<pb pagenum="188"/>stream can turn it. This water, falling into a race, runs therefrom on to a <lb/>second high and heavy wheel of a lower machine, whose pump lifts the water <lb/>out of a deep shaft. Since, however, the water of so small a stream cannot <lb/>alone revolve the lower water-wheel, the axle of the latter is turned at the start <lb/>with a crank worked by two men, but as soon as it has poured out into a pool <lb/>the water which has been drawn up by the pumps, the upper wheel draws <lb/>up this water by its own pump, and pours it into the race, from which it <lb/>flows on to the lower water-wheel and strikes its buckets. So both this <lb/>water from the mine, as well as the water of the stream, being turned down <lb/>the races on to that subterranean wheel of the lower machine, turns it, and <lb/>water is pumped out of the deeper part of the shaft by means of two or <lb/>three pumps.<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>If the stream supplies enough water straightway to turn a higher and <lb/>heavier water-wheel, then a toothed drum is fixed to the other end of the <lb/>axle, and this turns the drum made of rundles on another axle set below it. <lb/>To each end of this lower axle there is fitted a crank of round iron curved <lb/>like the horns of the moon, of the kind employed in machines of this <lb/>description. This machine, since it has rows of pumps on each side, <lb/>draws great quantities of water.</s>

<s>Of the rag and chain pumps there are six kinds known to us, of which <lb/>the first is made as follows: A cave is dug under the surface of earth or in a <lb/>tunnel, and timbered on all sides by stout posts and planks, to prevent either <lb/>the men from being crushed or the machine from being broken by its collapse. <lb/>In this cave, thus timbered, is placed a water-wheel fitted to an angular axle. <lb/>The iron journals of the axle revolve in iron pillows, which are held in timbers <lb/>of sufficient strength. The wheel is generally twenty-four feet high, <lb/>occasionally thirty, and in no way different from those which are made for <lb/>grinding corn, except that it is a little narrower. The axle has on one side <lb/>a drum with a groove in the middle of its circumference, to which are fixed <lb/>many four-curved iron clamps. In these clamps catch the links of the chain, <lb/>which is drawn through the pipes out of the sump, and which again falls, <lb/>through a timbered opening, right down to the bottom into the sump to a <lb/>balancing drum. There is an iron band around the small axle of the <lb/>balancing drum, each journal of which revolves in an iron bearing fixed to a <lb/>timber. The chain turning about this drum brings up the water by the <lb/>balls through the pipes. Each length of pipe is encircled and protected by <lb/>five iron bands, a palm wide and a digit thick, placed at equal distances from <lb/>each other; the first band on the pipe is shared in common with the <lb/>preceding length of pipe into which it is fitted, the last band with the succeed<lb/>ing length of pipe which is fitted into it. Each length of pipe, except the <lb/>first, is bevelled on the outer circumference of the upper end to a distance <lb/>of seven digits and for a depth of three digits, in order that it may be inserted <lb/>into the length of pipe which goes before it; each, except the last, is reamed <lb/>out on the inside of the lower end to a like distance, but to the depth </s>

<s>A—UPPER AXLE. B—WHEEL WHOSE BUCKETS THE FORCE OF THE STREAM STRIKES. <lb/>C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—SECOND AXLE. E—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. F—CURVED <lb/>ROUND IRONS. G—ROWS OF PUMPS.

<pb pagenum="190"/>of a palm, that it may be able to take the end of the pipe which <lb/>follows. And each length of pipe is fixed with iron clamps to the timbers of <lb/>the shaft, that it may remain stationary. Through this continuous series <lb/>of pipes, the water is drawn by the balls of the chain up out of the sump as <lb/>far as the tunnel, where it flows out into the drains through an aperture in <lb/>the highest pipe. The balls which lift the water are connected by the iron <lb/>links of the chain, and are six feet distant from one another; they are made <lb/>of the hair of a horse's tail sewn into a covering to prevent it from being <lb/>pulled out by the iron clamps on the drum; the balls are of such size that <lb/>one can be held in each hand. If this machine is set up on the surface of <lb/>the earth, the stream which turns the water-wheel is led away through open<lb/>air ditches; if in a tunnel, the water is led away through the subterranean <lb/>drains. The buckets of the water-wheel, when struck by the impact of the <lb/>stream, move forward and turn the wheel, together with the drum, whereby <lb/>the chain is wound up and the balls expel the water through the pipes. If <lb/>the wheel of this machine is twenty-four feet in diameter, it draws water from a <lb/>shaft two hundred and ten feet deep; if thirty feet in diameter, it will draw <lb/>water from a shaft two hundred and forty feet deep. But such work requires <lb/>a stream with greater water-power.</s>

<s>The next pump has two drums, two rows of pipes and two drawing<lb/>chains whose balls lift out the water; otherwise they are like the last pump. <lb/>This pump is usually built when an excessive amount of water flows into the <lb/>sump. These two pumps are turned by water-power; indeed, water draws <lb/>water.</s>

<s>The following is the way of indicating the increase or decrease of the <lb/>water in an underground sump, whether it is pumped by this rag and chain <lb/>pump or by the first pump, or the third, or some other. From a beam which <lb/>is as high above the shaft as the sump is deep, is hung a cord, to one <lb/>end of which there is fastened a stone, the other end being attached to a <lb/>plank. The plank is lowered down by an iron wire fastened to the <lb/>other end; when the stone is at the mouth of the shaft the plank <lb/>is right down the shaft in the sump, in which water it floats. This <lb/>plank is so heavy that it can drag down the wire and its iron clasp and <lb/>hook, together with the cord, and thus pull the stone upwards. Thus, as <lb/>the water decreases, the plank decends and the stone is raised; on the <lb/>contrary, when the water increases the plank rises and the stone is lowered. <lb/>When the stone nearly touches the beam, since this indicates that the water <lb/>has been exhausted from the sump by the pump, the overseer in charge of the <lb/>machine closes the water-race and stops the water-wheel: when the stone <lb/>nearly touches the ground at the side of the shaft, this indicates that the <lb/>sump is full of water which has again collected in it, because the water raises <lb/>the plank and thus the stone drags back both the rope and the iron wire; <lb/>then the overseer opens the water-race, whereupon the water of the stream <lb/>again strikes the buckets of the water-wheel and turns the pump. As <lb/>workmen generally cease from their labours on the yearly holidays, and </s>

<s>A—WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—JOURNALS. D—PILLOWS. E—DRUM. F—CLAMPS. <lb/>G—DRAWING-CHAIN. H—TIMBERS. I—BALLS. K—PIPE. L—RACE OF STREAM.

<pb pagenum="192"/>sometimes on working days, and are thus not always near the pump, and as <lb/>the pump, if necessary, must continue to draw water all the time, a bell rings <lb/>aloud continuously, indicating that this pump, or any other kind, is uninjured <lb/>and nothing is preventing its turning. The bell is hung by a cord from <lb/>a small wooden axle held in the timbers which stand over the shaft, and <lb/>a second long cord whose upper end is fastened to the small axle is lowered <lb/>into the shaft; to the lower end of this cord is fastened a piece of wood; <lb/>and as often as a cam on the main axle strikes it, so often does the bell ring <lb/>and give forth a sound.</s>

<s>The third pump of this kind is employed by miners when no river capable <lb/>of turning a water-wheel can be diverted, and it is made as follows. They <lb/>first dig a chamber and erect strong timbers and planks to prevent the sides <lb/>from falling in, which would overwhelm the pump and kill the men. The <lb/>roof of the chamber is protected with contiguous timbers, so arranged that <lb/>the horses which pull the machine can travel over it. Next they again set up <lb/>sixteen beams forty feet long and one foot wide and thick, joined by clamps <lb/>at the top and spreading apart at the bottom, and they fit the lower end <lb/>of each beam into a separate sill laid flat on the ground, and join these by a <lb/>post; thus there is created a circular area of which the diameter is fifty <lb/>feet. Through an opening in the centre of this area there descends an <lb/>upright square axle, forty-five feet long and a foot and a half wide and thick; <lb/>its lower pivot revolves in a socket in a block laid flat on the ground in the <lb/>chamber, and the upper pivot revolves in a bearing in a beam which is mor<lb/>tised into two beams at the summit beneath the clamps; the lower pivot is <lb/>seventeen feet distant from either side of the chamber, <emph type="italics"/>i.e.,<emph.end type="italics"/> from its front and <lb/>rear. At the height of a foot above its lower end, the axle has a toothed wheel, <lb/>the diameter of which is twenty-two feet. This wheel is composed of four <lb/>spokes and eight rim pieces; the spokes are fifteen feet long and three<lb/>quarters of a foot wide and thick<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>; one end of them is mortised in the axle, <lb/>the other in the two rims where they are joined together. These rims are three<lb/>quarters of a foot thick and one foot wide, and from them there rise and <lb/>project upright teeth three-quarters of a foot high, half a foot wide, and six <lb/>digits thick. These teeth turn a second horizontal axle by means of a drum <lb/>composed of twelve rundles, each three feet long and six digits wide and <lb/>thick. This drum, being turned, causes the axle to revolve, and around this <lb/>axle there is a drum having iron clamps with four-fold curves in which catch <lb/>the links of a chain, which draws water through pipes by means of balls. <lb/>The iron journals of this horizontal axle revolve on pillows which are set in <lb/>the centre of timbers. Above the roof of the chamber there are mortised <lb/>into the upright axle the ends of two beams which rise obliquely; the upper <lb/>ends of these beams support double cross-beams, likewise mortised to the <lb/>axle. In the outer end of each cross-beam there is mortised a small wooden <lb/>piece which appears to hang down; in this wooden piece there is similarly </s>

<s>A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—TOOTHED WHEEL. C—TEETH. D—HORIZONTAL AXLE. <lb/>E—DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. F—SECOND DRUM. G—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb/>H—THE BALLS.

<pb pagenum="194"/>mortised at the lower end a short board; this has an iron key which engages <lb/>a chain, and this chain again a pole-bar. This machine, which draws water <lb/>from a shaft two hundred and forty feet deep, is worked by thirty-two horses; <lb/>eight of them work for four hours, and then these rest for twelve hours, and <lb/>the same number take their place. This kind of machine is employed at the <lb/>foot of the Harz<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> mountains and in the neighbourhood. Further, if <lb/>necessity arises, several pumps of this kind are often built for the purpose of <lb/>mining one vein, but arranged differently in different localities varying <lb/>according to the depth. At Schemnitz, in the Carpathian mountains, there <lb/>are three pumps, of which the lowest lifts water from the lowest sump to <lb/>the first drains, through which it flows into the second sump; the intermediate <lb/>one lifts from the second sump to the second drain, from which it flows into <lb/>the third sump; and the upper one lifts it to the drains of the tunnel, through <lb/>which it flows away. This system of three machines of this kind is turned <lb/>by ninety-six horses; these horses go down to the machines by an inclined </s>

<s>A—AXLE. B—DRUM. C—DRAWING-CHAIN. D—BALLS. E—CLAMPS.

<pb pagenum="195"/>shaft, which slopes and twists like a screw and gradually descends. The <lb/>lowest of these machines is set in a deep place, which is distant from the <lb/>surface of the ground 660 feet.</s>

<s>The fourth species of pump belongs to the same genera, and is made <lb/>as follows. Two timbers are erected, and in openings in them, the ends of a <lb/>barrel revolve. Two or four strong men turn the barrel, that is to say, one <lb/>or two pull the cranks, and one or two push them, and in this way help the <lb/>others; alternately another two or four men take their place. The barrel <lb/>of this machine, just like the horizontal axle of the other machines, has a <lb/>drum whose iron clamps catch the links of a drawing-chain. Thus water <lb/>is drawn through the pipes by the balls from a depth of forty-eight feet. <lb/>Human strength cannot draw water higher than this, because such very <lb/>heavy labour exhausts not only men, but even horses; only water-power <lb/>can drive continuously a drum of this kind. Several pumps of this kind, as <lb/>of the last, are often built for the purpose of mining on a single vein, <lb/>but they are arranged differently for different positions and depths.</s>

<s>A—AXLES. B—LEVERS. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. <lb/>E—DRUM IN WHICH IRON CLAMPS ARE FIXED.</s>

<s>The fifth pump of this kind is partly like the third and partly like the <lb/>fourth, because it is turned by strong men like the last, and like the third <lb/>it has two axles and three drums, though each axle is horizontal. The <lb/>journals of each axle are so fitted in the pillows of the beams that they cannot <lb/>fly out; the lower axle has a crank at one end and a toothed drum at the <lb/>other end; the upper axle has at one end a drum made of rundles, and at <lb/>the other end, a drum to which are fixed iron clamps, in which the links of a <lb/>chain catch in the same way as before, and from the same depth, draw water <lb/>through pipes by means of balls. This revolving machine is turned by two <lb/>pairs of men alternately, for one pair stands working while the other sits <lb/>taking a rest; while they are engaged upon the task of turning, one pulls <lb/>the crank and the other pushes, and the drums help to make the pump turn <lb/>more easily.</s>

<s>The sixth pump of this kind likewise has two axles. At one end of the <lb/>lower axle is a wheel which is turned by two men treading, this is twenty<lb/>three feet high and four feet wide, so that one man may stand alongside <lb/>the other. At the other end of this axle is a toothed wheel. The upper<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>axle has two drums and one wheel; the first drum is made of rundles, and to <lb/>the other there are fixed the iron clamps. The wheel is like the one on the <lb/>second machine which is chiefly used for drawing earth and broken rock <lb/>out of shafts. The treaders, to prevent themselves from falling, grasp in <lb/>their hands poles which are fixed to the inner sides of the wheel. When <lb/>they turn this wheel, the toothed drum being made to revolve, sets in motion <lb/>the other drum which is made of rundles, by which means again the links <lb/>of the chain catch to the cleats of the third drum and draw water through <lb/>pipes by means of balls,—from a depth of sixty-six feet.</s>

<s>But the largest machine of all those which draw water is the one which <lb/>follows. First of all a reservoir is made in a timbered chamber; this reser<lb/>voir is eighteen feet long and twelve feet wide and high. Into this reservoir <lb/>a stream is diverted through a water-race or through the tunnel; it has two <lb/>entrances and the same number of gates. Levers are fixed to the upper part <lb/>of these gates, by which they can be raised and let down again, so that by one <lb/>way the gates are opened and in the other way closed. Beneath the openings <lb/>are two plank troughs which carry the water flowing from the reservoir, and <lb/>pour it on to the buckets of the water-wheel, the impact of which turns the <lb/>wheel. The shorter trough carries the water, which strikes the buckets <lb/>that turn the wheel toward the reservoir, and the longer trough carries <lb/>the water which strikes those buckets that turn the wheel in the opposite <lb/>direction. The casing or covering of the wheel is made of joined boards to <lb/>which strips are affixed on the inner side. The wheel itself is thirty-six feet <lb/>in diameter, and is mortised to an axle, and it has, as I have already said, <lb/>two rows of buckets, of which one is set the opposite way to the other, so <lb/>that the wheel may be turned toward the reservoir or in the opposite </s>

<s>A—AXLES. B—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. C—TOOTHED WHEEL. <lb/>D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. E—DRUM TO WHICH ARE FIXED IRON CLAMPS. <lb/>F—SECOND WHEEL. G—BALLS.

<pb pagenum="198"/>direction. The axle is square and is thirty-five feet long and two feet thick <lb/>and wide. Beyond the wheel, at a distance of six feet, the axle has four hubs, <lb/>one foot wide and thick, each one of which is four feet distant from the next<gap/><lb/>to these hubs are fixed by iron nails as many pieces of wood as are necessary <lb/>to cover the hubs, and, in order that the wood pieces may fit tight, they are <lb/>broader on the outside and narrower on the inside; in this way a drum is <lb/>made, around which is wound a chain to whose ends are hooked leather bags. <lb/>The reason why a drum of this kind is made, is that the axle may be kept in <lb/>good condition, because this drum when it becomes worn away by use can <lb/>be repaired easily. Further along the axle, not far from the end, is another <lb/>drum one foot broad, projecting two feet on all sides around the axle. And <lb/>to this, when occasion demands, a brake is applied forcibly and holds back <lb/>the machine; this kind of brake I have explained before. Near the axle, <lb/>in place of a hopper, there is a floor with a considerable slope, having in <lb/>front of the shaft a width of fifteen feet and the same at the back; at each <lb/>side of it there is a stout post carrying an iron chain which has a large hook. <lb/>Five men operate this machine; one lets down the doors which close the <lb/>reservoir gates, or by drawing down the levers, opens the water-races; this <lb/>man, who is the director of this machine, stands in a hanging cage beside the <lb/>reservoir. When one bag has been drawn out nearly as far as the sloping <lb/>floor, he closes the water gate in order that the wheel may be stopped; when <lb/>the bag has been emptied he opens the other water gate, in order that the <lb/>other set of buckets may receive the water and drive the wheel in the opposite <lb/>direction. If he cannot close the water-gate quickly enough, and the water <lb/>continues to flow, he calls out to his comrade and bids him raise the brake <lb/>upon the drum and stop the wheel. Two men alternately empty the bags, <lb/>one standing on that part of the floor which is in front of the shaft, <lb/>and the other on that part which is at the back. When the bag has been <lb/>nearly drawn up—of which fact a certain link of the chain gives warning—the <lb/>man who stands on the one part of the floor, catches a large iron hook in one <lb/>link of the chain, and pulls out all the subsequent part of the chain toward <lb/>the floor, where the bag is emptied by the other man. The object of this <lb/>hook is to prevent the chain, by its own weight, from pulling down the <lb/>other empty bag, and thus pulling the whole chain from its axle and <lb/>dropping it down the shaft. His comrade in the work, seeing that the bag <lb/>filled with water has been nearly drawn out, calls to the director of the <lb/>machine and bids him close the water of the tower so that there will be time <lb/>to empty the bag; this being emptied, the director of the machine first of <lb/>all slightly opens the other water-gate of the tower to allow the end of the <lb/>chain, together with the empty bag, to be started into the shaft again, and <lb/>then opens entirely the water-gates. When that part of the chain which <lb/>has been pulled on to the floor has been wound up again, and has been let <lb/>down over the shaft from the drum, he takes out the large hook which was <lb/>fastened into a link of the chain. The fifth man stands in a sort of cross-cut <lb/>beside the sump, that he may not be hurt, if it should happen that a link </s>

<s>A—RESERVOIR. B—RACE. C, D—LEVERS. E, F—TROUGHS UNDER THE WATER GATES. <lb/>G, H—DOUBLE ROWS OF BUCKETS. I—AXLE. K—LARGER DRUM. L—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb/>M—BAG. N—HANGING CAGE. O—MAN WHO DIRECTS THE MACHINE. P, Q—MEN <lb/>EMPTYING BAGS.

<pb pagenum="200"/>is broken and part of the chain or anything else should fall down; he guides <lb/>the bag with a wooden shovel, and fills it with water if it fails to take <lb/>in the water spontaneously. In these days, they sew an iron band into the <lb/>top of each bag that it may constantly remain open, and when lowered into <lb/>the sump may fill itself with water, and there is no need for a man to act as <lb/>governor of the bags. Further, in these days, of those men who stand on <lb/>the floor the one empties the bags, and the other closes the gates of the <lb/>reservoir and opens them again, and the same man usually fixes the large <lb/>hook in the link of the chain. In this way, three men only are employed in <lb/>working this machine; or even—since sometimes the one who empties the <lb/>bag presses the brake which is raised against the other drum and thus stops <lb/>the wheel—two men take upon themselves the whole labour.</s>

<s>But enough of haulage machines; I will now speak of ventilating <lb/>machines. If a shaft is very deep and no tunnel reaches to it, or no drift <lb/>from another shaft connects with it, or when a tunnel is of great length and <lb/>no shaft reaches to it, then the air does not replenish itself. In such a case it <lb/>weighs heavily on the miners, causing them to breathe with difficulty, and <lb/>sometimes they are even suffocated, and burning lamps are also extinguished. <lb/>There is, therefore, a necessity for machines which the Greeks call <lb/><foreign lang="greek">pneumatika/i</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>spiritales<emph.end type="italics"/>—though they do not give forth any <lb/>sound—which enable the miners to breathe easily and carry on their work.</s>

<s>These devices are of three genera. The first receives and diverts into <lb/>the shaft the blowing of the wind, and this genus is divided into three species, <lb/>of which the first is as follows. Over the shaft—to which no tunnel connects— <lb/>are placed three sills a little longer than the shaft, the first over the front, <lb/>the second over the middle, and the third over the back of the shaft. Their <lb/>ends have openings, through which pegs, sharpened at the bottom, are driven <lb/>deeply into the ground so as to hold them immovable, in the same way that <lb/>the sills of the windlass are fixed. Each of these sills is mortised into each <lb/>of three cross-beams, of which one is at the right side of the shaft, the second <lb/>at the left, and the third in the middle. To the second sill and the second <lb/>cross-beam—each of which is placed over the middle of the shaft—planks <lb/>are fixed which are joined in such a manner that the one which precedes <lb/>always fits into the groove of the one which follows. In this way four angles <lb/>and the same number of intervening hollows are created, which collect the <lb/>winds that blow from all directions. The planks are roofed above with a <lb/>cover made in a circular shape, and are open below, in order that the wind may <lb/>not be diverted upward and escape, but may be carried downward; and there<lb/>by the winds of necessity blow into the shafts through these four openings. <lb/>However, there is no need to roof this kind of machine in those localities in <lb/>which it can be so placed that the wind can blow down through its topmost <lb/>part.</s>

<s>A—SILLS. B—POINTED STAKES. C—CROSS-BEAMS. D—UPRIGHT PLANKS. <lb/>E—HOLLOWS. F—WINDS. G—COVERING DISC. H—SHAFTS. I—MACHINE <lb/>WITHOUT A COVERING.</s>

<s>The second machine of this genus turns the blowing wind into a shaft <lb/>through a long box-shaped conduit, which is made of as many lengths of <lb/>planks, joined together, as the depth of the shaft requires; the joints are <lb/>smeared with fat, glutinous clay moistened with water. The mouth of this con<lb/>duit either projects out of the shaft to a height of three or four feet, or it does <lb/>not project; if it projects, it is shaped like a rectangular funnel, broader and <lb/>wider at the top than the conduit itself, that it may the more easily gather <lb/>the wind; if it does not project, it is not broader than the conduit, but <lb/>planks are fixed to it away from the direction in which the wind is blowing, <lb/>which catch the wind and force it into the conduit.</s>

<s>The third of this genus of machine is made of a pipe or pipes and <lb/>a barrel. Above the uppermost pipe there is erected a wooden barrel, four </s>

<s>A—PROJECTING MOUTH OF CONDUIT. B—PLANKS FIXED TO THE MOUTH OF THE CONDUIT <lb/>WHICH DOES NOT PROJECT.<lb/>feet high and three feet in diameter, bound with wooden hoops; it has a <lb/>square blow-hole always open, which catches the breezes and guides them <lb/>down either by a pipe into a conduit or by many pipes into the shaft. To <lb/>the top of the upper pipe is attached a circular table as thick as <lb/>the bottom of the barrel, but of a little less diameter, so that the barrel may be <lb/>turned around on it; the pipe projects out of the table and is fixed in a <lb/>round opening in the centre of the bottom of the barrel. To the end of the <lb/>pipe a perpendicular axle is fixed which runs through the centre of the barrel <lb/>into a hole in the cover, in which it is fastened, in the same way as at the <lb/>bottom. Around this fixed axle and the table on the pipe, the movable <lb/>barrel is easily turned by a zephyr, or much more by a wind, which govern <lb/>the wing on it. This wing is made of thin boards and fixed to the upper <lb/>part of the barrel on the side furthest away from the blow-hole; this, as I <lb/>have said, is square and always open. The wind, from whatever quarter of

<pb pagenum="203"/>the world it blows, drives the wing straight toward the opposite direction, in <lb/>which way the barrel turns the blow-hole towards the wind itself; the <lb/>blow-hole receives the wind, and it is guided down into the shaft by means <lb/>of the conduit or pipes.</s>

<s>A—WOODEN BARRELS. B—HOOPS. C—BLOW-HOLES. D—PIPE. <lb/>E—TABLE. F—AXLE. G—OPENING IN THE BOTTOM OF THE BARREL. <lb/>H—WING.</s>

<s>The second genus of blowing machine is made with fans, and is likewise <lb/>varied and of many forms, for the fans are either fitted to a windlass barrel <lb/>or to an axle. If to an axle, they are either contained in a hollow drum, <lb/>which is made of two wheels and a number of boards joining them together, <lb/>or else in a box-shaped casing. The drum is stationary and closed on the <lb/>sides, except for round holes of such size that the axle may turn in them; <lb/>it has two square blow-holes, of which the upper one receives the air, while <lb/>the lower one empties into the conduit through which the air is led down the <lb/>shaft. The ends of the axle, which project on each side of the drum, are <lb/>supported by forked posts or hollowed beams plated with thick iron; one <lb/>end of the axle has a crank, while in the other end are fixed four rods with <lb/>thick heavy ends, so that they weight the axle, and when turned, make it </s>

<s>A—DRUM. B—BOX-SHAPED CASING. C—BLOW-HOLE. D—SECOND HOLE. <lb/>E—CONDUIT. F—AXLE. G—LEVER OF AXLE. H—RODS.

<pb pagenum="205"/>prone to motion as it revolves. And so, when the workman turns the axle <lb/>by the crank, the fans, the description of which I will give a little later, draw <lb/>in the air by the blow-hole, and force it through the other blow-hole which <lb/>leads to the conduit, and through this conduit the air penetrates into the <lb/>shaft.</s>

<s>The one with the box-shaped casing is furnished with just the same <lb/>things as the drum, but the drum is far superior to the box: for the fans so <lb/>fill the drum that they almost touch it on every side, and drive into the <lb/>conduit all the air that has been accumulated; but they cannot thus fill <lb/>the box-shaped casing, on account of its angles, into which the air partly <lb/>retreats; therefore it cannot be as useful as the drum. The kind with a <lb/>box-shaped casing is not only placed on the ground, but is also set up on timbers <lb/>like a windmill, and its axle, in place of a crank, has four sails outside, <lb/>like the sails of a windmill. When these are struck by the wind they turn <lb/>the axle, and in this way its fans—which are placed within the casing—drive </s>

<s>A—BOX-SHAPED CASING PLACED ON THE GROUND. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—ITS AXLE <lb/>WITH FANS. D—CRANK OF THE AXLE. E—RODS OF SAME. F—CASING SET ON TIMBERS. <lb/>G—SAILS WHICH THE AXLE HAS OUTSIDE THE CASING.

<pb pagenum="206"/>the air through the blow-hole and the conduit into the shaft. Although <lb/>this machine has no need of men whom it is necessary to pay to work the <lb/>crank, still when the sky is devoid of wind, as it often is, the machine does <lb/>not turn, and it is therefore less suitable than the others for ventilating a shaft.</s>

<s>In the kind where the fans are fixed to an axle, there is generally a <lb/>hollow stationary drum at one end of the axle, and on the other end is fixed <lb/>a drum made of rundles. This rundle drum is turned by the toothed wheel <lb/>of a lower axle, which is itself turned by a wheel whose buckets receive the <lb/>impetus of water. If the locality supplies an abundance of water this <lb/>machine is most useful, because to turn the crank does not need men <lb/>who require pay, and because it forces air without cessation through the <lb/>conduit into the shaft.</s>

<s>A—HOLLOW DRUM. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—AXLE WITH FANS. D—DRUM <lb/>WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. E—LOWER AXLE. F—ITS TOOTHED WHEEL. <lb/>G—WATER WHEEL.</s>

<s>Of the fans which are fixed on to an axle contained in a drum or box, <lb/>there are three sorts. The first sort is made of thin boards of such length <lb/>and width as the height and width of the drum or box require; the second

<pb pagenum="207"/>sort is made of boards of the same width, but shorter, to which are bound <lb/>long thin blades of poplar or some other flexible wood; the third sort has <lb/>boards like the last, to which are bound double and triple rows of goose <lb/>feathers. This last is less used than the second, which in turn is less used <lb/>than the first. The boards of the fan are mortised into the quadrangular <lb/>parts of the barrel axle.</s>

<s>A—FIRST KIND OF FAN. B—SECOND KIND OF FAN. C—THIRD KIND OF <lb/>FAN. D—QUADRANGULAR PART OF AXLE. E—ROUND PART OF SAME. <lb/>F—CRANK.</s>

<s>Blowing machines of the third genus, which are no less varied and of no <lb/>fewer forms than those of the second genus, are made with bellows, for by its <lb/>blasts the shafts and tunnels are not only furnished with air through conduits <lb/>or pipes, but they can also be cleared by suction of their heavy and pestilential <lb/>vapours. In the latter case, when the bellows is opened it draws the <lb/>vapours from the conduits through its blow-hole and sucks these vapours <lb/>into itself; in the former case, when it is compressed, it drives the air through <lb/>its nozzle into the conduits or pipes. They are compressed either by a man,

<pb pagenum="208"/>or by a horse or by water-power; if by a man, the lower board of a large bellows is <lb/>fixed to the timbers above the conduit which projects out of the shaft, and so <lb/>placed that when the blast is blown through the conduit, its nozzle is <lb/>set in the conduit. When it is desired to suck out heavy or pestilential <lb/>vapours, the blow-hole of the bellows is fitted all round the mouth of the <lb/>conduit. Fixed to the upper bellows board is a lever which couples <lb/>with another running downward from a little axle, into which it is <lb/>mortised so that it may remain immovable; the iron journals of this little <lb/>axle revolve in openings of upright posts; and so when the workman pulls <lb/>down the lever the upper board of the bellows is raised, and at the same time <lb/>the flap of the blow-hole is dragged open by the force of the wind. If the <lb/>nozzle of the bellows is enclosed in the conduit it draws pure air into itself, <lb/>but if its blow-hole is fitted all round the mouth of the conduit it exhausts <lb/>the heavy and pestilential vapours out of the conduit and thus from the <lb/>shaft, even if it is one hundred and twenty feet deep. A stone placed on the <lb/>upper board of the bellows depresses it and then the flap of the blow-hole is </s>

<s>A—SMALLER PART OF SHAFT. B—SQUARE CONDUIT. C—BELLOWS. D—LARGER PART <lb/>OF SHAFT.

<pb pagenum="209"/>closed. The bellows, by the first method, blows fresh air into the conduit <lb/>through its nozzle, and by the second method blows out through the nozzle <lb/>the heavy and pestilential vapours which have been collected. In this <lb/>latter case fresh air enters through the larger part of the shaft, and the miners <lb/>getting the benefit of it can sustain their toil. A certain smaller part of the <lb/>shaft which forms a kind of estuary, requires to be partitioned off from the <lb/>other larger part by uninterrupted lagging, which reaches from the top of the <lb/>shaft to the bottom; through this part the long but narrow conduit reaches <lb/>down nearly to the bottom of the shaft.</s>

<s>When no shaft has been sunk to such depth as to meet a tunnel driven <lb/>far into a mountain, these machines should be built in such a manner that <lb/>the workman can move them about. Close by the drains of the tunnel <lb/>through which the water flows away, wooden pipes should be placed and <lb/>joined tightly together in such a manner that they can hold the air; these <lb/>should reach from the mouth of the tunnel to its furthest end. At the mouth <lb/>of the tunnel the bellows should be so placed that through its nozzle it can <lb/>blow its accumulated blasts into the pipes or the conduit; since one blast </s>

<s>A—TUNNEL. B—PIPE. C—NOZZLE OF DOUBLE BELLOWS.

<pb pagenum="210"/>always drives forward another, they penetrate into the tunnel and change <lb/>the air, whereby the miners are enabled to continue their work.</s>

<s>If heavy vapours need to be drawn off from the tunnels, generally three <lb/>double or triple bellows, without nozzles and closed in the forepart, are placed <lb/>upon benches. A workman compresses them by treading with his feet, just <lb/>as persons compress those bellows of the organs which give out varied and <lb/>sweet sounds in churches. These heavy vapours are thus drawn along the <lb/>air-pipes and through the blow-hole of the lower bellows board, and are <lb/>expelled through the blow-hole of the upper bellows board into the open <lb/>air, or into some shaft or drift. This blow-hole has a flap-valve, which the <lb/>noxious blast opens, as often as it passes out. Since one volume of air con<lb/>stantly rushes in to take the place of another which has been drawn out by <lb/>the bellows, not only is the heavy air drawn out of a tunnel as great as 1,200 <lb/>feet long, or even longer, but also the wholesome air is naturally drawn in <lb/>through that part of the tunnel which is open outside the conduits. In this way <lb/>the air is changed, and the miners are enabled to carry on the work they have <lb/>begun. If machines of this kind had not been invented, it would be necessary <lb/>for miners to drive two tunnels into a mountain, and continually, at every <lb/>two hundred feet at most, to sink a shaft from the upper tunnel to the <lb/>lower one, that the air passing into the one, and descending by the shafts <lb/>into the other, would be kept fresh for the miners; this could not be done <lb/>without great expense.</s>

<s>There are two different machines for operating, by means of horses, the <lb/>above described bellows. The first of these machines has on its axle a <lb/>wooden wheel, the rim of which is covered all the way round by steps; a <lb/>horse is kept continually within bars, like those within which horses are held <lb/>to be shod with iron, and by treading these steps with its feet it turns the wheel, <lb/>together with the axle; the cams on the axle press down the sweeps which <lb/>compress the bellows. The way the instrument is made which raises the <lb/>bellows again, and also the benches on which the bellows rest, I will explain <lb/>more clearly in Book IX. Each bellows, if it draws heavy vapours <lb/>out of a tunnel, blows them out of the hole in the upper board; if they are <lb/>drawn out of a shaft, it blows them out through its nozzle. The wheel has <lb/>a round hole, which is transfixed with a pole when the machine needs to be <lb/>stopped.</s>

<s>The second machine has two axles; the upright one is turned by a horse, <lb/>and its toothed drum turns a drum made of rundles on a horizontal axle; <lb/>in other respects this machine is like the last. Here, also, the nozzles of <lb/>the bellows placed in the conduits blow a blast into the shaft or tunnel.</s>

<s>In the same way that this last machine can refresh the heavy air of a <lb/>shaft or tunnel, so also could the old system of ventilating by the constant <lb/>shaking of linen cloths, which Pliny<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> has explained; the air not only grows </s>

<s>A—MACHINE FIRST DESCRIBED. B—THIS WORKMAN, TREADING WITH HIS FEET, IS COM<lb/>PRESSING THE BELLOWS. C—BELLOWS WITHOUT NOZZLES. D—HOLE BY WHICH HEAVY <lb/>VAPOURS OR BLASTS ARE BLOWN OUT. E—CONDUITS. F—TUNNEL. G—SECOND <lb/>MACHINE DESCRIBED. H—WOODEN WHEEL. I—ITS STEPS. K—BARS. L—HOLE IN <lb/>SAME WHEEL. M—POLE. N—THIRD MACHINE DESCRIBED. O—UPRIGHT AXLE. <lb/>P—ITS TOOTHED DRUM. Q—HORIZONTAL AXLE. R—ITS DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES.</s>

<s>A—TUNNEL. B—LINEN CLOTH.<lb/>heavier with the depth of a shaft, of which fact he has made mention, but <lb/>also with the length of a tunnel.</s>

<s>The climbing machines of miners are ladders, fixed to one side of the shaft, <lb/>and these reach either to the tunnel or to the bottom of the shaft. I need not <lb/>describe how they are made, because they are used everywhere, and need <lb/>not so much skill in their construction as care in fixing them. However, <lb/>miners go down into mines not only by the steps of ladders, but they are <lb/>also lowered into them while sitting on a stick or a wicker basket, fastened to <lb/>the rope of one of the three drawing machines which I described at first. <lb/>Further, when the shafts are much inclined, miners and other workmen <lb/>sit in the dirt which surrounds their loins and slide down in the same way <lb/>that boys do in winter-time when the water on some hillside has congealed <lb/>with the cold, and to prevent themselves from falling, one arm is wound about <lb/>a rope, the upper end of which is fastened to a beam at the mouth of the shaft, <lb/>and the lower end to a stake fixed in the bottom of the shaft. In these three <lb/>ways miners descend into the shafts. A fourth way may be mentioned <lb/>which is employed when men and horses go down to the underground </s>

<s>A—DESCENDING INTO THE SHAFT BY LADDERS. B—BY SITTING ON A STICK. C—BY <lb/>SITTING ON THE DIRT. D—DESCENDING BY STEPS CUT IN THE ROCK.

<pb pagenum="214"/>machines and come up again, that is by inclined shafts which are twisted like <lb/>a screw and have steps cut in the rock, as I have already described.</s>

<s>It remains for me to speak of the ailments and accidents of miners, and of <lb/>the methods by which they can guard against these, for we should always <lb/>devote more care to maintaining our health, that we may freely perform our <lb/>bodily functions, than to making profits. Of the illnesses, some affect the <lb/>joints, others attack the lungs, some the eyes, and finally some are fatal to <lb/>men.</s>

<s>Where water in shafts is abundant and very cold, it frequently injures <lb/>the limbs, for cold is harmful to the sinews. To meet this, miners should <lb/>make themselves sufficiently high boots of rawhide, which protect their <lb/>legs from the cold water; the man who does not follow this advice will <lb/>suffer much ill-health, especially when he reaches old age. On the other <lb/>hand, some mines are so dry that they are entirely devoid of water, and this <lb/>dryness causes the workmen even greater harm, for the dust which is stirred <lb/>and beaten up by digging penetrates into the windpipe and lungs, and <lb/>produces difficulty in breathing, and the disease which the Greeks call <lb/><foreign lang="greek">a)\sqma.</foreign> If the dust has corrosive qualities, it eats away the lungs, and <lb/>implants consumption in the body; hence in the mines of the Carpathian <lb/>Mountains women are found who have married seven husbands, all of whom <lb/>this terrible consumption has carried off to a premature death. At Altenberg <lb/>in Meissen there is found in the mines black <emph type="italics"/>pompholyx,<emph.end type="italics"/> which eats wounds <lb/>and ulcers to the bone; this also corrodes iron, for which reason the keys <lb/>of their sheds are made of wood. Further, there is a certain kind of <emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>which eats away the feet of the workmen when they have become wet, and <lb/>similarly their hands, and injures their lungs and eyes. Therefore, for their

<pb pagenum="215"/>digging they should make for themselves not only boots of rawhide, but gloves <lb/>long enough to reach to the elbow, and they should fasten loose veils over their <lb/>faces; the dust will then neither be drawn through these into their wind<lb/>pipes and lungs, nor will it fly into their eyes. Not dissimilarly, among the <lb/>Romans<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> the makers of vermilion took precautions against breathing its fatal <lb/>dust.</s>

<s>Stagnant air, both that which remains in a shaft and that which remains <lb/>in a tunnel, produces a difficulty in breathing; the remedies for this evil <lb/>are the ventilating machines which I have explained above. There is another <lb/>illness even more destructive, which soon brings death to men who work <lb/>in those shafts or levels or tunnels in which the hard rock is broken by fire. <lb/>Here the air is infected with poison, since large and small veins and seams <lb/>in the rocks exhale some subtle poison from the minerals, which is driven <lb/>out by the fire, and this poison itself is raised with the smoke not unlike <lb/><emph type="italics"/>pompholyx,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/> which clings to the upper part of the walls in the works in which <lb/>ore is smelted. If this poison cannot escape from the ground, but falls down <lb/>into the pools and floats on their surface, it often causes danger, for if at any <lb/>time the water is disturbed through a stone or anything else, these fumes rise <lb/>again from the pools and thus overcome the men, by being drawn in with their <lb/>breath; this is even much worse if the fumes of the fire have not yet all <lb/>escaped. The bodies of living creatures who are infected with this poison <lb/>generally swell immediately and lose all movement and feeling, and they die <lb/>without pain; men even in the act of climbing from the shafts by the <lb/>steps of ladders fall back into the shafts when the poison overtakes them, <lb/>because their hands do not perform their office, and seem to them to be round <lb/>and spherical, and likewise their feet. If by good fortune the injured <lb/>ones escape these evils, for a little while they are pale and look like <lb/>dead men. At such times, no one should descend into the mine or into the <lb/>neighbouring mines, or if he is in them he should come out quickly. Prudent <lb/>and skilled miners burn the piles of wood on Friday, towards evening, and <lb/>

<pb pagenum="216"/>they do not descend into the shafts nor enter the tunnels again before Monday, <lb/>and in the meantime the poisonous fumes pass away.</s>

<s>There are also times when a reckoning has to be made with Orcus,<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>for some metalliferous localities, though such are rare, spontaneously <lb/>produce poison and exhale pestilential vapour, as is also the case with some <lb/>openings in the ore, though these more often contain the noxious fumes. <lb/>In the towns of the plains of Bohemia there are some caverns which, <lb/>at certain seasons of the year, emit pungent vapours which put out lights <lb/>and kill the miners if they linger too long in them. Pliny, too, has left <lb/>a record that when wells are sunk, the sulphurous or aluminous vapours <lb/>which arise kill the well-diggers, and it is a test of this danger if a burning <lb/>lamp which has been let down is extinguished. In such cases a second well <lb/>is dug to the right or left, as an air-shaft, which draws off these noxious <lb/>vapours. On the plains they construct bellows which draw up these noxious <lb/>vapours and remedy this evil; these I have described before.</s>

<s>Further, sometimes workmen slipping from the ladders into the shafts <lb/>break their arms, legs, or necks, or fall into the sumps and are drowned; <lb/>often, indeed, the negligence of the foreman is to blame, for it is his special <lb/>work both to fix the ladders so firmly to the timbers that they cannot break <lb/>away, and to cover so securely with planks the sumps at the bottom of the <lb/>shafts, that the planks cannot be moved nor the men fall into the water; <lb/>wherefore the foreman must carefully execute his own work. Moreover, <lb/>he must not set the entrance of the shaft-house toward the north wind, <lb/>lest in winter the ladders freeze with cold, for when this happens the men's <lb/>hands become stiff and slippery with cold, and cannot perform their office <lb/>of holding. The men, too, must be careful that, even if none of these things <lb/>happen, they do not fall through their own carelessness.</s>

<s>Mountains, too, slide down and men are crushed in their fall and perish. <lb/>In fact, when in olden days Rammelsberg, in Goslar, sank down, so many <lb/>men were crushed in the ruins that in one day, the records tell us, about <lb/>400 women were robbed of their husbands. And eleven years ago, part <lb/>of the mountain of Altenberg, which had been excavated, became loose and <lb/>sank, and suddenly crushed six miners; it also swallowed up a hut and one <lb/>mother and her little boy. But this generally occurs in those mountains <lb/>which contain <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae.<emph.end type="italics"/> Therefore, miners should leave numerous <lb/>arches under the mountains which need support, or provide underpinning. <lb/>Falling pieces of rock also injure their limbs, and to prevent this from hap<lb/>pening, miners should protect the shafts, tunnels, and drifts.</s>

<s>The venomous ant which exists in Sardinia is not found in our mines. <lb/>This animal is, as Solinus<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> writes, very small and like a spider in shape; it <lb/>is called <emph type="italics"/>solífuga,<emph.end type="italics"/> because it shuns (<emph type="italics"/>fugít<emph.end type="italics"/>) the light (<emph type="italics"/>solem<emph.end type="italics"/>). It is very common <lb/>

<pb pagenum="217"/>in silver mines; it creeps unobserved and brings destruction upon those <lb/>who imprudently sit on it. But, as the same writer tells us, springs of warm <lb/>and salubrious waters gush out in certain places, which neutralise the venom <lb/>inserted by the ants.</s>

<s>In some of our mines, however, though in very few, there are other <lb/>pernicious pests. These are demons of ferocious aspect, about which I have <lb/>spoken in my book <emph type="italics"/>De Animantibus Subterraneis.<emph.end type="italics"/> Demons of this kind <lb/>are expelled and put to flight by prayer and fasting.<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/></s>

<s>Some of these evils, as well as certain other things, are the reason why <lb/>pits are occasionally abandoned. But the first and principal cause is that <lb/>they do not yield metal, or if, for some fathoms, they do bear metal they <lb/>become barren in depth. The second cause is the quantity of water which <lb/>flows in; sometimes the miners can neither divert this water into the <lb/>tunnels, since tunnels cannot be driven so far into the mountains, or they <lb/>cannot draw it out with machines because the shafts are too deep; or if they <lb/>could draw it out with machines, they do not use them, the reason <lb/>undoubtedly being that the expenditure is greater than the profits of a <lb/>moderately poor vein. The third cause is the noxious air, which the owners <lb/>sometimes cannot overcome either by skill or expenditure, for which reason <lb/>the digging is sometimes abandoned, not only of shafts, but also of tunnels. The <lb/>fourth cause is the poison produced in particular places, if it is not in our <lb/>power either completely to remove it or to moderate its effects. This is the <lb/>reason why the caverns in the Plain known as Laurentius<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/> used not to be <lb/>

<pb pagenum="218"/>worked, though they were not deficient in silver. The fifth cause are the <lb/>fierce and murderous demons, for if they cannot be expelled, no one escapes <lb/>from them. The sixth cause is that the underpinnings become loosened <lb/>and collapse, and a fall of the mountain usually follows; the underpinnings <lb/>are then only restored when the vein is very rich in metal. The seventh <lb/>cause is military operations. Shafts and tunnels should not be re-opened <lb/>unless we are quite certain of the reasons why the miners have deserted them, <lb/>because we ought not to believe that our ancestors were so indolent and <lb/>spiritless as to desert mines which could have been carried on with profit. <lb/>Indeed, in our own days, not a few miners, persuaded by old women's tales, <lb/>have re-opened deserted shafts and lost their time and trouble. Therefore, <lb/>to prevent future generations from being led to act in such a way, it is <lb/>advisable to set down in writing the reason why the digging of each shaft or <lb/>tunnel has been abandoned, just as it is agreed was once done at Freiberg, <lb/>when the shafts were deserted on account of the great inrush of water.</s>

<pb/>

<s>Since the Sixth Book has described the iron tools, <lb/>the vessels and the machines used in mines, this <lb/>Book will describe the methods of assaying<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> ores; <lb/>because it is desirable to first test them in order <lb/>that the material mined may be advantageously <lb/>smelted, or that the dross may be purged away and <lb/>the metal made pure. Although writers have men<lb/>tioned such tests, yet none of them have set down the <lb/>directions for performing them, wherefore it is no <lb/>wonder that those who come later have written nothing on the subject. <lb/>By tests of this kind miners can determine with certainty whether <lb/>ores contain any metal in them or not; or if it has already been <lb/>indicated that the ore contains one or more metals, the tests show whether <lb/>it is much or little; the miners also ascertain by such tests the method by <lb/>which the metal can be separated from that part of the ore devoid of it; <lb/>and further, by these tests, they determine that part in which there is much <lb/>metal from that part in which there is little. Unless these tests have been <lb/>carefully applied before the metals are melted out, the ore cannot be smelted <lb/>without great loss to the owners, for the parts which do not easily melt in the <lb/>fire carry the metals off with them or consume them. In the last case, they pass <lb/>off with the fumes; in the other case they are mixed with the slag and furnace <lb/>accretions, and in such event the owners lose the labour which they have spent <lb/>in preparing the furnaces and the crucibles, and further, it is necessary for them <lb/>to incur fresh expenditure for fluxes and other things. Metals, when they have <lb/>been melted out, are usually assayed in order that we may ascertain what pro<lb/>portion of silver is in a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper or lead, or what quantity of <lb/>gold is in one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; and, on the other hand, what proportion of copper <lb/>or lead is contained in a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, or what quantity of silver is <lb/>contained in one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold. And from this we can calculate whether it <lb/>will be worth while to separate the precious metals from the base metals, or <lb/>not. Further, a test of this kind shows whether coins are good or are <lb/>debased; and readily detects silver, if the coiners have mixed more than is <lb/>lawful with the gold; or copper, if the coiners have alloyed with the gold or <lb/>silver more of it than is allowable. I will explain all these methods with the <lb/>utmost care that I can.</s>

<s>The method of assaying ore used by mining people, differs from <lb/>smelting only by the small amount of material used. Inasmuch as, by <lb/>smelting a small quantity, they learn whether the smelting of a large

<pb pagenum="221"/>quantity will compensate them for their expenditure; hence, if they are not <lb/>particular to employ assays, they may, as I have already said, sometimes smelt <lb/>the metal from the ore with a loss or sometimes without any profit; for they

<pb pagenum="222"/>can assay the ore at a very small expense, and smelt it only at a great <lb/>expense. Both processes, however, are carried out in the same way, for just <lb/>as we assay ore in a little furnace, so do we smelt it in the large furnace. Also <lb/>in both cases charcoal and not wood is burned. Moreover, in the crucible <lb/>when metals are tested, be they gold, silver, copper, or lead, they are mixed in <lb/>precisely the same way as they are mixed in the blast furnace when they <lb/>are smelted. Further, those who assay ores with fire, either pour out the <lb/>metal in a liquid state, or, when it has cooled, break the crucible and clean

<pb pagenum="223"/>the metal from slag; and in the same way the smelter, as soon as the metal <lb/>flows from the furnace into the forehearth, pours in cold water and takes the <lb/>slag from the metal with a hooked bar. Finally, in the same way that gold <lb/>and silver are separated from lead in a cupel, so also are they separated in <lb/>the cupellation furnace.</s>

<s>It is necessary that the assayer who is testing ore or metals should be <lb/>prepared and instructed in all things necessary in assaying, and that he <lb/>should close the doors of the room in which the assay furnace stands, lest </s>

<s>ROUND ASSAY FURNACE.</s>

<s>RECTANGULAR ASSAY FURNACE.

<pb pagenum="224"/>anyone coming at an inopportune moment might disturb his thoughts when <lb/>they are intent on the work. It is also necessary for him to place his balances <lb/>in a case, so that when he weighs the little buttons of metal the scales may <lb/>not be agitated by a draught of air, for that is a hindrance to his work.</s>

<s>Now I will describe the different things which are necessary in assaying, <lb/>beginning with the assay furnace, of which one differs from another in <lb/>shape, material, and the place in which it is set. In shape, they may be <lb/>round or rectangular, the latter shape being more suited to assaying ores. <lb/>The materials of the assay furnaces differ, in that one is made of bricks, <lb/>another of iron, and certain ones of clay. The one of bricks is built on a <lb/>chimney-hearth which is three and a half feet high; the iron one is placed <lb/>in the same position, and also the one of clay. The brick one is a cubit high, <lb/>a fo